Dispositional differences in cognitive motivation : the life and times of individuals varying in need for cognition

Evaluative processes refer to the operations by which organisms discriminate threatening from nurturant environments. Low activation of positive and negative evaluative processes by a stimulus reflects neutrality, whereas high activation of such processes reflects maximal conflict. Attitudes, an important class of manifestations of evaluative processes, have traditionally been conceptualized as falling along a bipolar dimension, and the positive and negative evaluative processes underlying attitudes have been conceptualized as being reciprocally activated, making the bipolar rating scale the measure of choice. Research is reviewed suggesting that this bipolar dimension is insufficient to portray comprehensively positive and negative evaluative processes and that the question is not whether such processes are reciprocally activated but under what conditions they are reciprocally, nonreciprocally, or independently activated

Relationship between attitudes and evaluative space: A critical review, with emphasis on the separability of positive and negative substrates.

A number of ways of taxonomizing human learning have ben proposed. We examine the evidence for one such proposal, namely, that there exist independent explicit and implicit learning systems. This combines two further distinctions, (1) between learning that takes place with versus without concurrent awareness, and (2) between learning that involves the encoding of instances (or fragments) versus the induction of abstract rules or hypotheses. Implicit learning is assumed to involve unconscious rule learning. We examine the evidence for implicit learning derived from subliminal learning, conditioning, artificial grammar learning, instrumental learning, and reaction times in sequence learning. We conclude that unconscious learning has not been satisfactorily established in any of these areas. The assumption that learning in some of theses tasks (e.g., artificial grammar learning) is predominantly based on rule abstraction is questionable. When subjects cannot report the ''implicitly learned'' rules that govern stimulus selection, this is often because their knowledge consists of instances or fragments of the training stimuli rather than rules. In contrast to the distinction between conscious and unconscious learning, the distinction between instance and rule learning is a sound and meaningful way of taxonomizing human learning. We discuss various computational models of these two forms of learning.

Characteristics of dissociable human learning systems

Fuzzy-trace theory: An interim synthesis

Schooling and the Acquisition of Knowledge

The authors provide a critical evaluation of the use of stochastic independence in psychological research. Specifically, they consider problems of confirming the null hypothesis, power of the statistical test, Simpson's paradox, and between-subjects and within-subject correlations. These problems are discussed in the context of research on theories of memory and cognitive development and illustrated with data on reasoning-remembering relationships. The authors conclude that demonstrations of response independence do not, by themselves, provide sufficient grounds for deciding whether a single process or multiple processes are necessary to account for performance. Instead, they argue that formal models are necessary if findings of (in)dependence are to be interpreted meaningfully in terms of underlying theoretical processes.

On measuring (in)dependence of cognitive processes.

The rules used by children and adults in attempting to generate random numbers

Many indices of interrater agreement on binary tasks have been proposed to assess reliability, but none has escaped criticism. In a series of Monte Carlo simulations, five such indices were evaluated using d-prime, an unbiased indicator of raters' ability to distinguish between the true presence or absence of the characteristic being judged. Phi and, to a lesser extent, Kappa coefficients performed best across variations in characteristic prevalence, and raters' expertise and bias. Correlations with d-prime for Percentage Agreement, Scott's Pi, and Gwet's AC1 were markedly lower. In situations where two raters make a series of binary judgments, the findings suggest that researchers should choose Phi or Kappa to assess interrater agreement as the superiority of these indices was least influenced by variations in the decision environment and characteristics of the decision makers.

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An Evaluation of Interrater Reliability Measures on Binary Tasks Using d-Prime.

Reasoning in Middle Childhood: A Dynamic Model of Performance on Transitivity Tasks

In the first of 2 telephone-survey studies, factor analysis of the attitudes of 159 respondents revealed a general conservatism factor and two forms of liberalism, traditional and radical. Conservatism increased with age, traditional liberalism was strongest in women and middle-aged persons, and radical liberalism was stronger in men and decreased with age. In the second study, 240 respondents estimated the attitudes of a young, middle-aged, or old male or female target. Evidence of an “old-is-conservative” stereotype was clearest among young participants. Among old participants, the stereotype was evident only when the target was male. People associated traditional liberalism more with women than with men and radical liberalism more with men than with women. Both kinds of liberalism were expected to decrease with age. The authors conclude that age plays as important a role as gender in the attitude impressions people form during initial encounters.

Malcolm J. Grant

Papers

On measuring (in)dependence of cognitive processes.

The rules used by children and adults in attempting to generate random numbers

An Evaluation of Interrater Reliability Measures on Binary Tasks Using d-Prime.

Reasoning in Middle Childhood: A Dynamic Model of Performance on Transitivity Tasks

Attitudes and stereotypes about attitudes across the lifespan