Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) has emerged in the past ten years as a promising technique for analysis and characterization of the composition of a broad variety of objects of cultural heritage including painted artworks, icons, polychromes, pottery, sculpture, and metal, glass, and stone artifacts. This article describes in brief the basic principles and technological aspects of LIBS, and reviews several test cases that demonstrate the applicability and prospects of LIBS in the field of archaeological science.

Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) in archaeological science--applications and prospects.

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1366/0003702011952398

Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy in Art and Archaeology

Corrosion of magnesium in humid air

Corrosion behaviour of copper under chloride-containing thin electrolyte layer

Portable X-ray fluorescence (PXRF) serves as an effective, rapid and non-destructive, method for determining the elemental composition of natural and man-made materials, such as ceramic, glaze, glass, obsidian, pigments, paint, and metal artifacts; based on the analysis, the determination of their origin, technological and production issues, comparative studies, and more knowledge in the field of cultural heritage can be aimed at. The wavelengths of the released energy, known as fluorescent X-rays, are detected and measured by spectrograph in the energy dispersive and wavelength manner of detection. Since only the surface of an object is studied, in dimensions that typically range within some millimeters, care needs to be taken that corrosion and decay do not affect the analysis. A world survey of the major applications of PXRF in the analysis of various cultural material types is reported, and the available PXRF setups are described. A review of the results of obsidian characterization and clustering is included, and the advantages, reliability, and limitations are discussed, with particular emphasis on the calibration procedures.

Portable XRF of Archaeological Artifacts: Current Research, Potentials and Limitations

This paper presents examples of analyses by x-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometry in art and archaeology, including pigments in paint layers and illuminated manusripts, of iridescent glasses and of medieval coins. Theoretical aspects of information depths and shielding effects in layered materials are discussed. Element maps were experimentally obtained by a specially designed x-ray spectrometer (1 × 1 mm pixel resolution) and by electron-excited XRF (electron microprobe). Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

X‐ray fluorescence spectrometry in art and archaeology

Conventional pigment analysis of paintings requires the removal of micro-samples followed by the preparation of cross-sections. There are also requirements for investigating several locations within a painting in order to obtain information about dating and provenance or the reason for aesthetic impressions of the paint materials. The need to carry out such work without removing samples prompted the present project, in which the authors aimed to examine the possibility of applying XRF and PIXE methods in a complementary manner. The ion beam techniques of external PIXE plus Rutherford backscattering could distinguish painting techniques, i.e. paint layer arrangements and pigment admixtures, whereas portable XRF represents a valuable tool for preselecting the objects of interest which could be transported to the ion beam laboratory. This procedure was tested using samples of prepared paint layers. It is shown that it is possible to distinguish between two or three layers. The situation would be more difficult for more complex paint layer arrangements. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Paintings— a challenge for XRF and PIXE analysis

Experimental in situ studies of copper exposed to humidified air

Austrian medieval silver/copper coins were investigated at their surfaces by energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence analysis (EDXRF) and at the cross-sections by X-ray microanalysis in the scanning electron microscope (SEM/EDX) in order to estimate the error occurring when corroded objects of art and archaeology are analyzed on the surface by non-destructive methods. Additionally, Ag/Cu-standards were treated in diluted sulphuric acid and the depletion of copper on the surface was measured by EDXRF. By calculating the ratio of the Ag-K/Ag-L intensity the process of blanching could be studied.

Energy Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis and X-Ray Microanalysis of Medieval Silver Coins

Some theoretical aspects and limitations of XRF are discussed, including information depths in layered materials, characterization of inhomogeneous specimens, light element analysis, and radiation damage. Worked examples of applications of XRF and XRD are pigment analysis in delicate Chinese Paper, corrosion of glass, and leaching effects in soil-buried medieval coins.

Manfred Schreiner

Papers

X‐ray fluorescence spectrometry in art and archaeology

Paintings— a challenge for XRF and PIXE analysis

Experimental in situ studies of copper exposed to humidified air

Energy Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis and X-Ray Microanalysis of Medieval Silver Coins

X-ray analysis of objects of art and archaeology