世界経済・社会統計 = World development indicators

Family planning: the unfinished agenda

Structural approaches to HIV prevention.

Emerging evidence from China suggests that coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is deadlier for infected men than women with a 2.8% fatality rate being reported in Chinese men versus 1.7% in women. Further, sex-disaggregated data for COVID-19 in several European countries show a similar number of cases between the sexes, but more severe outcomes in aged men. Case fatality is highest in men with pre-existing cardiovascular conditions. The mechanisms accounting for the reduced case fatality rate in women are currently unclear but may offer potential to develop novel risk stratification tools and therapeutic options for women and men. The present review summarizes latest clinical and epidemiological evidence for gender and sex differences in COVID-19 from Europe and China. We discuss potential sex-specific mechanisms modulating the course of disease, such as hormone-regulated expression of genes encoding for the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV2) entry receptors angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) 2 receptor and TMPRSS2 as well as sex hormone-driven innate and adaptive immune responses and immunoaging. Finally, we elucidate the impact of gender-specific lifestyle, health behavior, psychological stress, and socioeconomic conditions on COVID-19 and discuss sex specific aspects of antiviral therapies. The sex and gender disparities observed in COVID-19 vulnerability emphasize the need to better understand the impact of sex and gender on incidence and case fatality of the disease and to tailor treatment according to sex and gender. The ongoing and planned prophylactic and therapeutic treatment studies must include prospective sex- and gender-sensitive analyses.

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Impact of sex and gender on COVID-19 outcomes in Europe.

ESTIMATES OF FERTILITY are among the most widely used demographic statistics. In many developing countries recent levels and trends in fertility are avidly watched by policymakers, family planning program managers, and demographers to determine whether and how rapidly fertility is moving in the desired downward direction. In much of the developed world, where fertility is now at historic lows, these same statistics are examined for signs of an upturn in fertility back to the replacement level needed to prevent future declines in population size. Given this interest in measuring human reproduction, it is desirable for users of fertility statistics to understand the strengths and weaknesses of available indicators. It is particularly important to avoid basing policies on statistics that give potentially misleading information. Although the demographic literature offers many measures of fertility, the total fertility rate (TFR) is now used more often than any other indicator. The TFR is defined as the average number of births a woman would have if she were to live through her reproductive years (ages 1549) and bear children at each age at the rates observed in a particular year or period. It is a hypothetical measure because no real group of women has experienced or will necessarily experience these particular rates. The actual childbearing of cohorts of women is given by the completed fertility rate (CFR), which measures the average number of births 50-year-old women had during their past reproductive years. The CFR measures the true reproductive experience of a group of women, but it has the disadvantage of representing past experience: women currently aged 50 did most of their childbearing two to three decades ago when they were in their 20s and 30s. The advantage of the TFR is that it measures current fertility and therefore gives up-to-date information on levels and trends in fertility. Another reason for the popularity of the TFR is its ease of interpretation compared with some other measures. Most interested persons will have little

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On the quantum and tempo of fertility.

This paper aimed to explain why men have been excluded from demographic research and the new interest in studying mens roles; to evaluate existing research on men; and to suggest future research directions. Mens role in reproduction has gained in prominence but demographic research has focused on a problem-oriented view and limited topics. Men should be studied as womens partners and as individuals with distinct interesting reproductive histories. Barriers to inclusion of men in demographic research include norms of the US White middle class for demographic theorizing about fertility. Demographers view men in their economic roles and devalue their role in fertility except as providers of sperm and barriers to contraceptive use. The Western family norm assumes agreement between mens and womens marital interests and the isolated unsupported role of mother. Recent theories are addressing issues of power and negotiation within partner relations. Cultural evidence challenges prior norms. A male sample presents methodological problems. Feminism and the womens health movement have shifted the focus to men. Classic demographic transition theory has failed to explain fertility change in a range of settings. Methods from other disciplines and the inclusion of qualitative data open up research options for studying men. A broader contextual analysis is gaining in popularity. Two demographic trends will require future research on mens role in family planning and fertility: the relaxation of links between marriage and childbearing and cumulative widening gaps between the reproductive experiences of men and women.

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Absent and Problematic Men: Demographic Accounts of Male Reproductive Roles

Gender inequality and restrictive gender norms: framing the challenges to health

This monograph reports on a study of the status of adolescent girls in developing countries that was constructed from a review and interpretation of available data in the relevant literature. In most cases statistics are illustrative; when possible comparisons are made with boys. The monograph opens with a chapter that discusses the characterization of adolescence as a distinct stage of life reviews current approaches to research on adolescents and presents the analytic approach used in this study. The next two chapters chart the developmental experience of adolescent girls. Chapter 2 follows their socioeconomic progress as they move from their childhood homes into the larger world of school and work and covers such topics as living arrangements domestic roles and responsibilities social and physical mobility schooling and work. Chapter 3 deals with such reproductive health topics as menstruation sexual activity knowledge of reproductive biology and health fertility regulation marriage and childbearing. The final chapter proposes an agenda to guide policy programs and research that will make adolescent girls in developing countries visible and valued; recognize the particularity of girls adolescence and change gender rules; move adolescent policy beyond reproductive health; support girls through sexual initiation pregnancy and marriage; widen and deepen research priorities; and lead to investment in the largest generation of girls ever.

https://knowledgecommons.popcouncil.org/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1763&context=departments_sbsr-pgy

The Uncharted Passage: Girls' Adolescence in the Developing World

Millions of young girls in the developing world are married when they are still children and as a result are denied the ordinary experiences that young people elsewhere take for granted: schooling good health economic opportunities and friendship with peers. Despite national laws and international agreements forbidding early marriage gender roles and marriage systems in many countries dictate the practice through which girls are deprived of basic rights and subjected to discrimination and health risks. Instead of being viewed as children or teenagers with potential and opportunities in their lives girls are often defined by social custom solely wives and mothers. This limited view exposes girls to responsibilities and risks that they are often not physically or mentally prepared to undertake while at the same time disrupting their prospects for education and employment. In addition to having a negative impact on girls themselves the practice of early marriage also has negative consequences for children families and society as a whole. (excerpt)

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Margaret E. Greene

Papers

Absent and Problematic Men: Demographic Accounts of Male Reproductive Roles

Gender inequality and restrictive gender norms: framing the challenges to health

The Uncharted Passage: Girls' Adolescence in the Developing World

Too young to wed. The lives rights and health of young married girls.

Creating an Enabling Environment for Adolescent Sexual and Reproductive Health: A Framework and Promising Approaches