Attachment--and loss.

Erik Eriksen is a remarkable individual. He has no college degrees yet is Professor of Human Development at Harvard University. He came to psychology via art, which explains why the reader will find him painting contexts and backgrounds rather than stating dull facts and concepts. He has been a training psychoanalyst for many years as well as a perceptive observer of cultural and social settings and their effect on growing up. This is not just a book on childhood. It is a panorama of our society. Anxiety in young children, apathy in American Indians, confusion in veterans of war, and arrogance in young Nazis are scrutinized under the psychoanalytic magnifying glass. The material is well written and devoid of technical jargon. The theme of the volume is that it is human to have a long childhood which will leave a lifelong residue of emotional immaturity in man. Primitive groups and

Childhood and Society.

Individualism and collectivism

Although the association between maternal depression and adverse child outcomes is well established, the strength of the association, the breadth or specificity of the outcomes, and the role of moderators are not known This information is essential to inform not only models of risk but also the design of preventive interventions by helping to identify subgroups at greater risk than others and to elucidate potential mechanisms as targets of interventions A meta-analysis of 193 studies was conducted to examine the strength of the association between mothers’ depression and children’s behavioral problems or emotional functioning Maternal depression was significantly related to higher levels of internalizing, externalizing, and general psychopathology and negative affect/behavior and to lower levels of positive affect/behavior, with all associations small in magnitude These associations were significantly moderated by theoretically and methodologically relevant variables, with patterns of moderation found to vary somewhat with each child outcome Results are interpreted in terms of implications for theoretical models that move beyond main effects models in order to more accurately identify which children of depressed mothers are more or less at risk for specific outcomes

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Maternal Depression and Child Psychopathology: A Meta-Analytic Review

In this review, we consider the potential functional role of beta-band oscillations, which at present is not yet well understood. We discuss evidence from recent studies on top-down mechanisms involved in cognitive processing, on the motor system and on the pathophysiology of movement disorders that suggest a unifying hypothesis: beta-band activity seems related to the maintenance of the current sensorimotor or cognitive state. We hypothesize that beta oscillations and/or coupling in the beta-band are expressed more strongly if the maintenance of the status quo is intended or predicted, than if a change is expected. Moreover, we suggest that pathological enhancement of beta-band activity is likely to result in an abnormal persistence of the status quo and a deterioration of flexible behavioural and cognitive control.

Beta-band oscillations--signalling the status quo?

This study describes a revision of a widely used parent-report measure of infant temperament, the Infant Behavior Questionnaire (IBQ; Rothbart, 1981 ). A rationally derived instrument was developed that included nine new scales and minor modifications of the seven scales of the IBQ. Parents of 360 infants, equally distributed over three age groups: 3–6 months; 6–9 months; and 9–12 months of age, participated. Conceptual and item analyses provided support for 14 of the 16 proposed scales, demonstrating satisfactory internal consistency. Inter-rater reliability was evaluated, with evidence of moderate agreement between primary and secondary caregivers. Monomethod discriminant validity was demonstrated through an examination of correlations among the Infant Behavior Questionnaire—Revised (IBQ-R) scale scores. Results of the factor analytic procedure were consistent with three broad dimensions of Surgency/Extraversion, Negative Affectivity, and Orienting/Regulation. Developmental and gender differences were also noted for a number of the IBQ-R scales. Specifically, older infants received higher scores on Approach, Vocal Reactivity, High Intensity Pleasure, Activity, Perceptual Sensitivity, Distress to Limitations, and Fear, whereas younger infants’ scores were higher for Low Intensity Pleasure, Cuddliness/Affiliation, and Duration of Orienting. Male infants obtained higher scores on Activity and High Intensity Pleasure, and female infants were rated higher on the Fear scale.

Studying infant temperament via the Revised Infant Behavior Questionnaire

This article describes the development, reliability, and factor structure of a finely differentiated (18 dimensions) parent-report measure of temperament in 1.5- to 3-year-old children, using a cross-sectional sample (N=317) and a longitudinal sample of primary (N=104) and secondary (N=61) caregivers. Adequate internal consistency was demonstrated for all scales and moderate inter-rater reliability was evident for most scales. Longitudinal stability correlations were primarily large over 6- and 12-month spans and moderate to large from 18 to 36 months. Factor analysis revealed a three-factor structure of Surgency/Extraversion, Negative Affectivity, and Effortful Control. In both samples and for both primary and secondary caregivers, older children received higher scores for Attention Focusing, Discomfort, Inhibitory Control, and Positive Anticipation. Primary caregivers rated females higher in Fear, and lower in High-intensity Pleasure, than males; secondary caregivers rated females higher than males in several aspects of Effortful Control.

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Measurement of fine-grained aspects of toddler temperament: The Early Childhood Behavior Questionnaire.

This article describes the development, reliability, and factor structure of a finely differentiated (18 dimensions) parent-report 10 measure of temperament in 1.5- to 3-year-old children, using a cross-sectional sample (N = 317) and a longitudinal sample of 11 primary (N = 104) and secondary (N = 61) caregivers. Adequate internal consistency was demonstrated for all scales and moderate 12 inter-rater reliability was evident for most scales. Longitudinal stability correlations were primarily large over 6- and 12-month spans 13 and moderate to large from 18 to 36 months. Factor analysis revealed a three-factor structure of Surgency/Extraversion, Negative 14 Affectivity, and Effortful Control. In both samples and for both primary and secondary caregivers, older children received higher 15 scores for Attention Focusing, Discomfort, Inhibitory Control, and Positive Anticipation. Primary caregivers rated females higher 16 in Fear, and lower in High-intensity Pleasure, than males; secondary caregivers rated females higher than males in several aspects 17 of Effortful Control. 18

Measurement of fine-grained aspects of toddler temperament:

Using data from parents of 761 infants from 6 independent samples, short (91 items, 14 scales) and very short (37 items, 3 broad scales) forms of the Infant Behavior Questionnaire-Revised (IBQ-R), a well-established caregiver report measure of temperament for infants aged 3 to 12 months, were developed. The forms were subsequently evaluated with data from 1,619 participants from 11 samples. Over 90% of Cronbach's alphas and part-whole correlations calculated for the short and very short form scales were greater than.70. Interparent agreement was nearly identical to that obtained with standard IBQ-R scales, averaging.41 and ranging from.06 to.76. Longitudinal stability over multiple time spans, and estimated retest reliability of the short form scales, were highly similar to those of standard forms, with estimated retest reliability averaging.72 and ranging from.54 to.93. Convergent and predictive validity of select short form scales were comparable to, but slightly lower, than those observed for standard IBQ-R scales. Recommendations for the use of the standard, short, and very short scales are discussed.

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Development and Assessment of Short and Very Short Forms of the Infant Behavior Questionnaire–Revised

Objective. It was hypothesized that children with cancer would have more social problems and difficulties with emotional well-being than case control, same race/gender, similarly aged classmates. Study Design. Using a case controlled design, children with any type of cancer requiring chemotherapy except brain tumors ( n = 76), currently receiving chemotherapy, ages 8 to 15, were compared with case control classroom peers ( n = 76). Peer relationships, emotional well-being, and behavior were evaluated based on peer, teacher, parent, and self-report, and were compared using analysis of variance and structural equation modeling. Results. Relative to case controls, children with cancer were perceived by teachers as being more sociable; by teachers and peers as being less aggressive; and by peers as having greater social acceptance. Measures of depression, anxiety, loneliness, and self-concept showed no significant differences, except children with cancer reported significantly lower satisfaction with current athletic competence. There were also no significant differences in mother or father perceptions of behavioral problems, emotional well-being, or social functioning. Scores on all standardized measures were in the normal range for both groups. Comparisons of the correlation matrices of children with cancer and to the correlation matrix of the comparison children using structural equation modeling suggested they were not significantly different. Conclusions. Children with cancer currently receiving chemotherapy were remarkably similar to case controls on measures of emotional well-being and better on several dimensions of social functioning. These findings are not supportive of disability/stress models of childhood chronic illness and suggest considerable psychologic hardiness.

Maria A. Gartstein

Papers

Studying infant temperament via the Revised Infant Behavior Questionnaire

Measurement of fine-grained aspects of toddler temperament: The Early Childhood Behavior Questionnaire.

Measurement of fine-grained aspects of toddler temperament:

Development and Assessment of Short and Very Short Forms of the Infant Behavior Questionnaire–Revised

Social, emotional, and behavioral functioning of children with cancer.