As empirical evidence has demonstrated the pervasiveness of sexual assault and intimate partner violence in the lives of women, and the links to poor mental health outcomes, attention has turned to examining how women seek and access formal help. We present a conceptual model that addresses prior limitations and makes three key contributions: It foregrounds the influence of social location and multiple contextual factors; emphasizes the importance of the attainment of effective formal help that meets women’s needs and leads to positive mental health outcomes; and highlights the role of interventions in facilitating help attainment. We conclude with research and practice implications.

A Model of Sexually and Physically Victimized Women's Process of Attaining Effective Formal Help over Time: The Role of Social Location, Context, and Intervention

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is reported by one in three women globally, but the prevalence is much higher in East Africa. Though some formal and informal resources do exist for women experiencing IPV, data suggest that disclosure, help seeking, and subsequent utilization of these resources are often hindered by sociocultural, economic, and institutional factors. This article explores actions taken by victims, available support services, and barriers to the utilization of available IPV resources by pregnant women in rural Nyanza, Kenya. Qualitative data were collected through nine focus group discussions and 20 in-depth interviews with pregnant women, partners or male relatives of pregnant women, and service providers. Data were managed in NVivo 8 using a descriptive analytical approach that harnessed thematic content coding and in-depth grounded analysis. We found that while formal resources for IPV were scarce, women utilized many informal resources (family, pastors, local leaders) as well as the health facility. In rare occasions, women escalated their response to formal services (police, judiciary). The community was sometimes responsive to women experiencing IPV but often viewed it as a "normal" part of local culture. Further barriers to women accessing services included logistical challenges and providers who were undertrained or uncommitted to responding to IPV appropriately. Moreover, the very sanctions meant to address violence (such as fines or jail) were often inhibiting for women who depended on their partners for financial resources. The results suggest that future IPV interventions should address community views around IPV and build upon locally available resources-including the health clinic-to address violence among women of childbearing age.

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Responses to and Resources for Intimate Partner Violence Qualitative Findings From Women, Men, and Service Providers in Rural Kenya

The current study examined the effect of immigrant status, acculturation, and the interaction of acculturation and immigrant status on self-reported victimization in the United States among Latino women, including physical assault, sexual assault, stalking, and threatened violence. In addition, immigrant status, acculturation, gender role ideology, and religious intensity were examined as predictors of the count of victimization among the victimized subsample. The Sexual Assault Among Latinas (SALAS) Study surveyed 2,000 adult Latino women who lived in high-density Latino neighborhoods in 2008. The present study reports findings for a subsample of women who were victimized in the United States (n = 568). Immigrant women reported significantly less victimization than U.S.-born Latino women in bivariate analyses. Multivariate models showed that Anglo orientation was associated with greater odds of all forms of victimization, whereas both Latino orientation and being an immigrant were associated with lower odds of all forms of victimization. Latino orientation was more protective for immigrant women than for U.S.-born Latino women with regard to sexual victimization. Among the victimized subsample, being an immigrant, Anglo acculturation, and masculine gender role were associated with a higher victimization count, whereas Latino orientation and religious intensity were associated with a lower victimization count. The findings point to the risk associated with being a U.S. minority, the protective value of Latino cultural maintenance, and the need for services to reach out to Anglo acculturated Latino women. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved). Language: en

https://psycnet.apa.org/journals/cdp/19/1/13.pdf

The effect of immigration and acculturation on victimization among a national sample of Latino women.

Adherence to culture of honor is examined in relationship to attitudes toward intimate partner violence (IPV) in Latinos. Prior research suggests that high honor culture adherence may be associated with more tolerance for IPV. In the present study, Latino participants (N = 72) completed questionnaires on culture of honor and attitudes toward various aspects of IPV, including attitudes toward the violence itself, toward the perpetrator, toward the victim, and toward victim help-seeking. High and low reputation threat conditions were depicted in vignettes of IPV to manipulate for honor adherence. Findings suggest that participants who adhere more greatly to culture of honor are more accepting of IPV, more approving of the perpetrator, and less approving of seeking help.

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/2158244013489685

Culture of Honor and Attitudes Toward Intimate Partner Violence in Latinos

While various forms of intimate partner violence (IPV) within the Latino community have been explored to some extent, the role of immigrant status and acculturation on IPV remains unclear. The current study investigated the lifetime rate of physical, sexual, stalking, and threat IPV, as well as the profile of abuse tactics used against victimized Latino women. Further, the influence of immigrant status, Anglo orientation, Latino orientation, and the interaction of immigrant status and acculturation variables on IPV were examined. Data came from the Sexual Assault Among Latinas (SALAS) study that gathered data from a national sample of Latino women (N = 2,000) via telephone interviews. Results showed 15.6 % of Latino women experienced IPV in their lifetime and threat IPV was the most common form of IPV. Physical, sexual, stalking and threat IPV were all used as abusive tactics in various configurations. Logistic regression analyses showed immigrants were less likely than U.S. born Latino women to experience any IPV and physical IPV. Anglo orientation was associated with increased odds of any IPV and stalking IPV while Latino orientation was associated with decreased odds of all forms of IPV. Furthermore, the protective effect of Latino orientation for stalking IPV was pronounced among immigrants. Together the results show that 1 in 6 Latino women experience IPV and that sociocultural factors such as immigrant status and acculturation are important considerations for this group, underscoring the influence of migration and cultural adaptation to family functioning.

Intimate Partner Violence among Latino Women: Rates and Cultural Correlates

Low rates of disclosure among Latina survivors of sexual assault and intimate partner violence may be related to cultural influences that stigmatize disclosure and make identifying instances of sexual assault and intimate partner violence difficult. In an effort to add to existing literature, the current study conducted a series of 10 focus groups with Spanish-speaking Latinas of varying educational, immigration, and generational statuses to identify the range of cultural influences that affect Latinas’ ability to identify and disclose instances of sexual assault and intimate partner violence. Results suggested that gender role ideologies, traditional beliefs about marriage, familism, taboos against talking about sex, respect for authority, lack of community resources, and fear of violence operate in different ways to obscure and justify acts of sexual assault and intimate partner violence and to maintain silence when such acts do occur. Yet, most participants also felt that other people, particularly Latinos living abroad and the older generation of Latinas living in the United States, held far more conservative and traditional beliefs than the participants themselves did, suggesting that important differences exist in both the acceptance of cultural beliefs and the mechanisms through which these beliefs affect Latinas’ ability to identify and disclose instances of sexual assault and intimate partner violence. Implications of these findings are discussed.

Maria del Carmen Lopez

Papers

Talking about interpersonal violence: Cultural influences on Latinas' identification and disclosure of sexual assault and intimate partner violence.