Research and valid practice in emotional intelligence (EI) have been impeded by lack of theoretical clarity regarding (a) the relative roles of emotion perception, emotion understanding, and emotion regulation facets in explaining job performance; (b) conceptual redundancy of EI with cognitive intelligence and Big Five personality; and (c) application of the EI label to 2 distinct sets of constructs (i.e., ability-based EI and mixed-based EI). In the current article, the authors propose and then test a theoretical model that integrates these factors. They specify a progressive (cascading) pattern among ability-based EI facets, in which emotion perception must causally precede emotion understanding, which in turn precedes conscious emotion regulation and job performance. The sequential elements in this progressive model are believed to selectively reflect Conscientiousness, cognitive ability, and Neuroticism, respectively. "Mixed-based" measures of EI are expected to explain variance in job performance beyond cognitive ability and personality. The cascading model of EI is empirically confirmed via meta-analytic data, although relationships between ability-based EI and job performance are shown to be inconsistent (i.e., EI positively predicts performance for high emotional labor jobs and negatively predicts performance for low emotional labor jobs). Gender and race differences in EI are also meta-analyzed. Implications for linking the EI fad in personnel selection to established psychological theory are discussed.

Emotional intelligence: An integrative meta-analysis and cascading model.

Why are a select few service firms better at what they do - year in and year out - than their competitors? For most senior managers, the profusion of anecdotal "service excellence" books fails to address this key question. In this pathbreaking book, world-renowned Harvard Business School service firm experts James L. Heskett, W. Earl Sasser, Jr. and Leonard A. Schlesinger reveal that leading companies stay on top by managing the service profit chain. Based on five years of painstaking research, the authors show how managers at American Express, Southwest Airlines, Banc One, Waste Management, USAA, MBNA, Intuit, British Airways, Taco Bell, Fairfield Inns, Ritz-Carlton Hotel, and the Merry Maids subsidiary of ServiceMaster employ a quantifiable set of relationships that directly links profit and growth to not only customer loyalty and satisfaction, but to employee loyalty, satisfaction, and productivity. The strongest relationships the authors discovered are those between (1) profit and customer loyalty; (2) employee loyalty and customer loyalty; and (3) employee satisfaction and customer satisfaction. Moreover, these relationships are mutually reinforcing; that is, satisfied customers contribute to employee satisfaction and vice versa. Here, finally, is the foundation for a powerful strategic service vision, a model on which any manager can build more focused operations and marketing capabilities. For example, the authors demonstrate how, in Banc One's operating divisions, a direct relationship between customer loyalty measured by the "depth" of a relationship, the number of banking services a customer utilizes, and profitability led the bank to encourage existing customers to further extend the bank services they use. Taco Bell has found that their stores in the top quadrant of customer satisfaction ratings outperform their other stores on all measures. At American Express Travel Services, offices that ticket quickly and accurately are more profitable than those which don't. With hundreds of examples like these, the authors show how to manage the customer-employee "satisfaction mirror" and the customer value equation to achieve a "customer's eye view" of goods and services. They describe how companies in any service industry can (1) measure service profit chain relationships across operating units; (2) communicate the resulting self-appraisal; (3) develop a "balanced scorecard" of performance; (4) develop a recognitions and rewards system tied to established measures; (5) communicate results company-wide; (6) develop an internal "best practice" information exchange; and (7) improve overall service profit chain performance. What difference can service profit chain management make? A lot. Between 1986 and 1995, the common stock prices of the companies studied by the authors increased 147%, nearly twice as fast as the price of the stocks of their closest competitors. The proven success and high-yielding results from these high-achieving companies will make The Service Profit Chain required reading for senior, division, and business unit managers in all service companies, as well as for students of service management.

The Service Profit Chain: How Leading Companies Link Profit and Growth to Loyalty, Satisfaction, and Value (Цепочка создания прибыли в сфере услуг: как ведущие компании связывают прибыль и рост с лояльностью, удовлетворением и ценностью)

This meta-analysis builds upon a previous meta-analysis by (1) including 65 per cent more studies that have over twice the sample size to estimate the relationships between emotional intelligence (EI) and job performance; (2) using more current meta-analytical studies for estimates of relationships among personality variables and for cognitive ability and job performance; (3) using the three-stream approach for classifying EI research; (4) performing tests for differences among streams of EI research and their relationships with personality and cognitive intelligence; (5) using latest statistical procedures such as dominance analysis; and (6) testing for publication bias. We classified EI studies into three streams: (1) ability-based models that use objective test items; (2) self-report or peer-report measures based on the four-branch model of EI; and (3) “mixed models” of emotional competencies. The three streams have corrected correlations ranging from 0.24 to 0.30 with job performance. The three streams correlated differently with cognitive ability and with neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. Streams 2 and 3 have the largest incremental validity beyond cognitive ability and the Five Factor Model (FFM). Dominance analysis demonstrated that all three streams of EI exhibited substantial relative importance in the presence of FFM and intelligence when predicting job performance. Publication bias had negligible influence on observed effect sizes. The results support the overall validity of EI. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Note: Correction added on 22 July 2010 after first publication online on 29 June 2010. The affiliations for Ronald H. Humphrey and Thomas H. Hawver have been corrected in this version of the article.

The relation between emotional intelligence and job performance: A meta‐analysis

A comprehensive meta-analysis of the relationship between Emotional Intelligence and health

This paper examines how emotional intelligence and cognitive intelligence are associated with job performance. We develop and test a compensatory model that posits that the association between emotional intelligence and job performance becomes more positive as cognitive intelligence decreases. We report the results of a study in which employees completed tests of emotional intelligence and cognitive intelligence, and their task performance and organizational citizenship behavior were assessed by their supervisors. Hypotheses from the model were supported for task performance and organizational citizenship behavior directed at the organization, but not for organizational citizenship behavior directed at individuals. We discuss the theoretical implications and managerial ramifications of our model and findings.

Emotional Intelligence, Cognitive Intelligence, and Job Performance:

Contemporary theories place emotions and self-regulation at the centre of a dynamic process of stress. Emotional Intelligence (EQ) is the ability to perceive, understand and reflectively manage one's own emotions and those of others. This study, which was situated within the management population (n = 224) of a large retail organization, investigates the relationship between a measure of EQ, subjective stress, distress, general health, morale, quality of working life and management performance. Significant correlations in the expected direction were found, indicating that managers who scored higher in EQ suffered less subjective stress, experienced better health and well-being, and demonstrated better management performance. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Health performance and emotional intelligence : an exploratory study of retail managers

This study builds on earlier work (Slaski & Cartwright, 2002), examining the role of Emotional Intelligence (EI) as a moderator in the stress process. A sample of UK managers (n = 60) were given training in emotional intelligence. Pre and post measures were taken relating to EI, stress and health and management performance. The study also incorporated a matched control group. It was found that training resulted in increased EI and improved health and well being. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Emotional intelligence training and its implications for stress, health and performance

Many authors claim there is a paucity of evidence for the validity of measures of emotional intelligence (EI). This paper summarises existing information on the reliability and validity of two measures of EI, the Dulewicz and Higgs EIQ and the Bar‐on EQ‐i. It also reports the results of a study on middle managers which investigated the degree to which these two EI instruments measure the same constructs: their concurrent/criterion‐related validity; and the relationship between EI and morale and stress at work. Correlations between the two instruments showed content and construct validity, with 16 out of the 20 hypothesised relationships between scales being significant. Correlations between various measures of morale and stress at work and EIQ demonstrated construct validity. Significant relationships were also found between EIQ and current job performance, thus providing further evidence of concurrent/criterion‐related validity.

Measuring emotional intelligence: Content, construct and criterion-related validity.

This article focuses on the role of emotions within organizations, with particular regard to the climate for services. The concept of emotional intelligence (EQ) is considered as encapsulating many of the key competences involved in creating and maintaining a positive climate for services. The conceptual basis of EQ is examined in some detail, in addition to its practical measurement. Research is reviewed which suggests that EQ can be developed, and which provides support for the argument that higher levels of EQ within organizations will facilitate the appropriate conditions for a positive climate for services to emerge. It is argued that measurement of EQ should form part of the selection process, for management and customer‐facing staff, and that development of emotional intelligence should be incorporated into staff training programs.

Emotional intelligence: fundamental competencies for enhanced service provision

Emotions at work—theory, research and applications for management. Roy L. Payne and Cary L. Cooper, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester: 2001. No. of pages: 344 pp. ISBN 0‐471‐98759‐X.

Mark Slaski

Papers

Health performance and emotional intelligence : an exploratory study of retail managers

Emotional intelligence training and its implications for stress, health and performance

Measuring emotional intelligence: Content, construct and criterion-related validity.

Emotional intelligence: fundamental competencies for enhanced service provision

Emotions at work—theory, research and applications for management. Roy L. Payne and Cary L. Cooper, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester: 2001. No. of pages: 344 pp. ISBN 0‐471‐98759‐X.