Structures in Other Domains The methodology of structural analysis discussed in this article has been applied beyond the narrow realm of natural language syntax that we have discussed in this article. Within the study of language, similar methods of analysis have been pervasively applied to the study of sounds (phonology), words (morphology), and meanings (semantics), yielding a range of of abstract structural representations whose properties bear considerable explanatory burden. There are a wealth of cases in each of these domains analogous to those discussed here, though space prevents us from going in these (see Akmajian, Demers, Farmer and Harnish 1995 for a traditional overview, and Jackendo 1994 for one more focused on connections with cognitive science). Additionally, these representations have shed substantial light on the processes of language acquisition and language change. It has been found that variation in the types of sentences that are used, whether during the course of children's acquisition of their native languages or in the centuries-long periods of linguistic change, are best characterized not as super cial and haphazard alterations, but rather in terms of parametric modi cations to the fundamental underlying grammatical rules and constraints. Moving outside the domain of language, one application of these same methods has been in the study of music cognition. Just as the representations of linguistic theory arise out of an attempt to model speakers' intuitions about well-formedness and possible meanings of the sentences of their

Structural analysis

A review on the mechanical properties of aged wood and salvaged timber

In situ assessment of structural timber using the resistance drilling method – Evaluation of usefulness

In this review article, the positive and negative impacts of termites on ecosystems and human activities are examined. Various ecosystem services provided by termites – their importance as a food resource for humans, wildlife and domestic animals – are discussed, along with the use of these insects in scientific research and in folk and traditional medicine. Some insufficiently studied properties of termites (their ability to perceive the radiation of radioactive substances, electric fields and magnetic fields), as well as the use of termites in bionics, are described. Special attention is paid to the use of termite mounds for different purposes (e.g. in mineral deposit searches, in medical applications, as furnaces for copper smelting, for storage of some nuts, as burial sites, for gathering of edible mushrooms of the genus Termitomyces and as fertilizer). Examples of such use in different countries are given. This article reviews the activities of termites as pests of agriculture and forestry, including crops that are most affected, and termites as structural pests (e.g. wooden structures, household furniture, books and museum collections). Examples of termites’ malicious activities in different parts of the world are provided. Information on the invasions of termites is given, and the main areas of expansion of their habitat are described. The economic loss caused by termites in some countries and the world as a whole are presented. The article also lists the most economically important termite species in the world.

Economic and ecological importance of termites: A global review

In-situ assessment of timber structural members: Combining information from visual strength grading and NDT/SDT methods – A review

In the scope of European Cooperation in Science and Technology–Wood Science for Conservation of Cultural Heritage (COST IE0601–WoodCultHer) (available at http://www.woodculther.org) it was agreed to produce Guidelines for the Assessment of Historic Timber Structures, covering the principles and possible approaches for the safety assessment of old timber structures of historical relevance that could be used as the basis for possible European Standards, as discussed with CEN/TC346 (Conservation of Cultural Heritage).This approach was targeted at all those concerned with the conservation of heritage buildings. These guidelines should also help decision-making regarding the need for immediate safety measures. The aim is to guarantee that inspection and assessment measures provide the necessary data for historical analysis, structural safety assessment, and planning of intervention works, while having minimal impact on the building fabric (the original materials, structural systems, and techniques).This articl...

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Guidelines for the on-site assessment of historic timber structures

The triangular truss is the most typical structural frame of Italian historic roofs. Mostly, but not exclusively, used to transfer vertical loads to walls, it has been developed during centuries in...

The assessment of Italian trusses: survey methodology and typical pathologies

Timber structures can be degraded during their life both by structural problems and, mainly, by biological degradation factors like fungi, and insects (Coleoptera and termites). The occurrence of these biodegradation agents leads, in the absence of appropriate maintenance interventions, to the loss of their structural integrity. Furthermore, if these biological agents decay old buildings, the loss of mechanical resistance of timber structures can be added to loss of cultural heritages. Just in these contexts an early evaluation of decay is crucial to design remedial treatments and a less invasive restoration intervention. This work presents a new microwave diagnostic system for the in situ evaluation of timber structures based on microwave reflectometry, i.e on the measurement of the microwave reflection coefficient as a function of frequency. The continuous-wave (CW) microwave signal is launched by a double-ridged antenna, which also measures the wave reflected by the material under investigation. The measurement system allows diagnosing the effects of biodegradation during a first quick survey in a non-destructive and non-invasive manner. Measurements on laboratory models demonstrated the feasibility of the method. Results obtained on timber beam sections, compared with the findings of traditional investigation methodologies, demonstrate the potentiality of microwave reflectometry, suggesting its usefulness for decay detection and as a support to invasive diagnostic tools.

Microwave Reflectometric Tool for Non-Destructive Assessment of Decay on Timber Structures

Includes articles published in the journal Recupero & conservazione from 1999 to 2001. These articles are already indexed from the journal. -- ICCROM

Strutture di legno : cultura, conservazione, restauro : la raccolta 1999-2001 degli speciali di Recuperoeconservazione

The problem of wood-boring insect attacks is gaining greater interest in Italy today. Wood-boring insects (Coleoptera, termites) often cause both structural and aesthetic damage on wooden structures which can sometimes give rise to human health concerns. Possible causes of current insect infestations include the use of timber originating from plantations, as well as bad post-felling practices such as late harvesting and stocking in unsuitable places before final processing. In the past, these insects were not thought to pose an economic threat to timber in service in Italy, but, in recent years, they have become a problem. The aim of this paper is to report on case studies concerning the occurrence of these unusual wood-boring insects on timber in service and, on the basis of the Authors experience, to formulate an in situ inspection protocol. The species we are dealing with in the case studies are: Bostrichus capucinus, family Bostrichidae, associated with Lyctus spp. (Fam. Lyctidae) and Lymexylon navale, family Lymexylonidae, belonging to the group of the so-called ambrosia beetles or pinhole borers. All these species were found on hardwoods, where they had bored into the sapwood except for L. navale which was also able to bore into heartwood, causing major concerns about its potential danger to timber in service. A technical integrated approach in evaluating insect attacks on on-site timber elements is also described here. The assessment is based on different methods, i.e. visual inspection and acoustic detection. This procedure is proposed as a basis for the development of an intervention protocol in the early stages of infestation.

Massimo Mannucci

Papers

Guidelines for the on-site assessment of historic timber structures

The assessment of Italian trusses: survey methodology and typical pathologies

Microwave Reflectometric Tool for Non-Destructive Assessment of Decay on Timber Structures

Strutture di legno : cultura, conservazione, restauro : la raccolta 1999-2001 degli speciali di Recuperoeconservazione

Diagnostic Evaluation of Insect Attack on Existing Timber Structures: A Review of some Case Studies