Current concepts of the role of interspecific interactions in communities have been shaped by a profusion of experimental studies of interspecific competition over the past few decades. Evidence for the importance of positive interactions — facilitations — in community organization and dynamics has accrued to the point where it warrants formal inclusion into community ecology theory, as it has been in evolutionary biology.

https://www.cell.com/trends/ecology-evolution/pdf/0169-5347(94)90088-4.pdf

Positive interactions in communities.

The worldwide decline of coral reefs calls for an urgent reassessment of current management practices. Confronting large-scale crises requires a major scaling-up of management efforts based on an improved understanding of the ecological processes that underlie reef resilience. Managing for improved resilience, incorporating the role of human activity in shaping ecosystems, provides a basis for coping with uncertainty, future changes and ecological surprises. Here we review the ecological roles of critical functional groups (for both corals and reef fishes) that are fundamental to understanding resilience and avoiding phase shifts from coral dominance to less desirable, degraded ecosystems. We identify striking biogeographic differences in the species richness and composition of functional groups, which highlight the vulnerability of Caribbean reef ecosystems. These findings have profound implications for restoration of degraded reefs, management of fisheries, and the focus on marine protected areas and biodiversity hotspots as priorities for conservation.

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Confronting the coral reef crisis

A heuristic framework for understanding and predicting the distribution and categorical abundance of species in stream communities is presented. The framework requires that species be described in terms of their functional relationships to habitat selective forces or their surrogates, which constitute "filters" occurring at hierarchical landscape scales (ranging from microhabitats to watersheds or basins). Large-scale filters are viewed as causative or mechanistic agents that constrain expression of local selective forces or biotic potential at lower scales. To join a local community, species in a regional pool must possess appropriate functional attributes (species traits) to "pass" through the nested filters. Biotic interactions are also a potential filter on local community composition, and they are invoked at the lower hierarchical levels, after species have passed through the physicochemical habitat filters. Potential landscape filters and their associated selective properties are identified, as are ...

Landscape filters and species traits: Towards mechanistic understanding and prediction in stream ecology

Summary 1. The goal of conservation and restoration activities is to maintain biological diversity and the ecosystem services that this diversity provides. These activities traditionally focus on the measures of species diversity that include only information on the presence and abundance of species. Yet how diversity influences ecosystem function depends on the traits and niches filled by species. 2. Biological diversity can be quantified in ways that account for functional and phenotypic differences. A number of such measures of functional diversity (FD) have been created, quantifying the distribution of traits in a community or the relative magnitude of species similarities and differences. We review FD measures and why they are intuitively useful for understanding ecological patterns and are important for management. 3. In order for FD to be meaningful and worth measuring, it must be correlated with ecosystem function, and it should provide information above and beyond what species richness or diversity can explain. We review these two propositions, examining whether the strength of the correlation between FD and species richness varies across differing environmental gradients and whether FD offers greater explanatory power of ecosystem function than species richness. 4. Previous research shows that the relationship between FD and richness is complex and context dependent. Different functional traits can show individual responses to different gradients, meaning that important changes in diversity can occur with minimal change in richness. Further, FD can explain variation in ecosystem function even when richness does not. 5. Synthesis and applications. FD measures those aspects of diversity that potentially affect community assembly and function. Given this explanatory power, FD should be incorporated into conservation and restoration decision-making, especially for those efforts attempting to reconstruct or preserve healthy, functioning ecosystems.

/pdf/beyond-species-functional-diversity-and-the-maintenance-of-1qhn1coswt.pdf

Beyond species: functional diversity and the maintenance of ecological processes and services

Kelp forests are phyletically diverse, structurally complex and highly productive components of coldwater rocky marine coastlines. This paper reviews the conditions in which kelp forests develop globally and where, why and at what rate they become deforested. The ecology and long archaeological history of kelp forests are examined through case studies from southern California, the Aleutian Islands and the western North Atlantic, well-studied locations that represent the widest possible range in kelp forest biodiversity. Global distribution of kelp forests is physiologically constrained by light at high latitudes and by nutrients, warm temperatures and other macrophytes at low latitudes. Within mid-latitude belts (roughly 40–60° latitude in both hemispheres) well-developed kelp forests are most threatened by herbivory, usually from sea urchins. Overfishing and extirpation of highly valued vertebrate apex predators often triggered herbivore population increases, leading to widespread kelp deforestation. Such deforestations have the most profound and lasting impacts on species-depauperate systems, such as those in Alaska and the western North Atlantic. Globally urchin-induced deforestation has been increasing over the past 2–3 decades. Continued fishing down of coastal food webs has resulted in shifting harvesting targets from apex predators to their invertebrate prey, including kelp-grazing herbivores. The recent global expansion of sea urchin harvesting has led to the widespread extirpation of this herbivore, and kelp forests have returned in some locations but, for the first time, these forests are devoid of vertebrate apex predators. In the western North Atlantic, large predatory crabs have recently filled this void and they have become the new apex predator in this system. Similar shifts from fish- to crab-dominance may have occurred in coastal zones of the United Kingdom and Japan, where large predatory finfish were extirpated long ago. Three North American case studies of kelp forests were examined to determine their long history with humans and project the status of future kelp forests to the year 2025. Fishing impacts on kelp forest systems have been both profound and much longer in duration than previously thought. Archaeological data suggest that coastal peoples exploited kelp forest organisms for thousands of years, occasionally resulting in localized losses of apex predators, outbreaks of sea urchin populations and probably small-scale deforestation. Over the past two centuries, commercial exploitation for export led to the extirpation of sea urchin predators, such as the sea otter in the North Pacific and predatory fishes like the cod in the North Atlantic. The large-scale removal of predators for export markets increased sea urchin abundances and promoted the decline of kelp forests over vast areas. Despite southern California having one of the longest known associations with coastal kelp forests, widespread deforestation is rare. It is possible that functional redundancies among predators and herbivores make this most diverse system most stable. Such biodiverse kelp forests may also resist invasion from non-native species. In the species-depauperate western North Atlantic, introduced algal competitors carpet the benthos and threaten future kelp dominance. There, other non-native herbivores and predators have become established and dominant components of this system. Climate changes have had measurable impacts on kelp forest ecosystems and efforts to control the emission of greenhouse gasses should be a global priority. However, overfishing appears to be the greatest manageable threat to kelp forest ecosystems over the 2025 time horizon. Management should focus on minimizing fishing impacts and restoring populations of functionally important species in these systems.

/pdf/kelp-forest-ecosystems-biodiversity-stability-resilience-and-3rb156vhzw.pdf

Kelp forest ecosystems: biodiversity, stability, resilience and future

We suggest that relatively few species attributes are of overriding importance to the structure of benthic marine algal communities and that these are often shared among taxonomically distant species. Data from the western North Atlantic, eastern North Pacific and Caribbean suggest that patterns in algal biomass, diversity and dominance are strikingly convergent when examined at a functional group level relative to the productivity and herbivore-induced disturbance potentials of the environment. We present a simple graphical model that provides a way to predict algal community composition based on these two environmental axes. This predictability stems from algal functional groups having characteristic rates of mass-specific productivity, thallus longevity and canopy height that cause them to «behave» in similar ways (...)

http://www.vliz.be/imisdocs/publications/131003.pdf

A functional group approach to the structure of algal-dominated communities

/pdf/visual-versus-random-point-percent-cover-estimations-4mmr9iaa8t.pdf

Visual versus random-point percent cover estimations: 'objective' is not always better

The species composition of pools in the intertidal zone on the coast of Washington State varies greatly from pool to pool and from time to time. While assemblages change somewhat predictably from the low— to the high—intertidal zone (presumably owing to different stress tolerances of the species), the variance among pools at a given tidal height cannot be ascribed to such physical factors. Some pools at each height are dominated by one species that monopolizes space on the rock or in the water column and modifies the pool environment. Each dominant species, once established, can spread rapidly through a pool (either by vegetative growth or by enhanced recruitment of its conspecifics) and is thus potentially self—perpetuating. When abundant, most dominants appear to prevent potential competitors from settling and surviving by monopolization of resources, abrasion of the substratum, and/or collection of sediment. Six such dominants were identified for Washington tidepools: from low to high pools, these are (1) the surfgrass Phyllospadix scouleri, (2) articulated coralline algae, (3) the mussel Mytilus californianus (exposed shores), (4) the cloning anemone Anthopleura elegantissima (more protected shores), (5) the red alga Rhodomela larix, and (6) the green alga Cladophora sp. Colonial diatoms also appear capable of dominating low pools in the absence of wave disturbance. However, each dominant monopolizes only 20—50% of the pools at any height. Disturbances, defined here as a loss of biomass exceeding 10% cover of a sessile species within 6 mo and caused by extrinsic forces, were observed frequently in regularly censused tidepools. Disturbance agents included waves, excessive heat, wave—driven logs or rocks, and unusual influxes of predators and herbivores. Severe disturbances (those affecting a large proportion of the organisms in a pool) tended to occur in high pools in the summer (due to heat stress) and low pools in the winter (due to wave damage). Overall, a disturbance occurred in every pool studied an average of every 1.6 yr. About half of the 231 observed disturbances affected one of the six dominant species. The frequencies of these disturbances ranged from one every 2—5 yr, and recovery of the species to its original level required 3 mo to > 2 yr. Some species (e.g., Rhodomela) were disturbed frequently bu recovered quickly because of rapid vegetative growth. However if asexual propagation was not possible, such as when the entire population of a species was removed from a pool, the slowness and irregularity of recruitment of sexual propagules greatly impeded recovery. Experimental manipulations involving the total removal of dominant species from pools showed that such large disturbances often require > 3 yr for recovery. The irregularity of planktonic recruitment can be compounded by the presence of herbivores, which can remove most settling organisms from the substratum, or by the absence of other organisms that are necessary for the settlement of a dominant (e.g., seed—attachment sites for Phyllospadix). The combination of high disturbance frequency and slow rates of recovery makes it impossible for any dominant to occupy all the pools in its tidal range at any one time. Disturbance is viewed in these habitats as the stochastic factor overlying other, more predictable, community—structuring factors such as tidal height, pool size, wave exposure, and levels of herbivory, predation, and competition. Thus combined deterministic processes and random events operate to produce a complex mosaic of species assemblages in pools in one region. None of the tidepool assemblages is "stable" over many generations; rather, they seem to exist in a dynamic state where disturbances are an integral structuring factor.

Disturbance and Recovery in Intertidal Pools: Maintenance of Mosaic Patterns

Advances in marine biology, vol 59

Recent theory has suggested that in systems in which resource taxa compete, the abundance of a consumer specialized on one prey should be positively affected by the presence of a specialized consumer of the other prey. We have shown that the type of competition between prey (i.e., hierarchical vs. symmetrical) strongly affects the nature of the interaction between consumers. In the low intertidal zone on San Juan Island, Washington, two species of acmaeid limpets overlap substantially in habitat and food use with the large chiton Katharina tunicata. The limpets in this region consume microalgae, especially diatoms, while the chiton is a generalist, eating both microalgae and macroalgae. The experimental removal of Katharina from two large areas resulted (over 3 yr) in a dramatic rise in macroalgal cover and the disappearance of limpets. Artificially increased densities of Katharina at another site led to greater limpet abundances and increased reproductive output of both limpets and chitons. The probable ...

Megan N. Dethier

Papers

A functional group approach to the structure of algal-dominated communities

Visual versus random-point percent cover estimations: 'objective' is not always better

Disturbance and Recovery in Intertidal Pools: Maintenance of Mosaic Patterns

Advances in marine biology, vol 59

An "indirect commensalism" between marine herbivores and the importance of competitive hierarchies