This article examines the measurement of short-lived (i.e., state) changes in self-esteem. A new scale is introduced that is sensitive to manipulations designed to temporarily alter self-esteem, and 5 studies are presented that support the scale's validity. The State Self-Esteem Scale (SSES) consists of 20 items modified from the widely used Janis-Field Feelings of Inadequacy Scale (Janis & Field, 1959). Psychometric analyses revealed that the SSES has 3 correlated factors: performance, social, and appearance self-esteem. Effects of naturally occurring and laboratory failure and of clinical treatment on SSES scores were examined; it was concluded that the SSES is sensitive to these sorts of manipulations. The scale has many potential uses, which include serving as a valid manipulation check index, measuring clinical change in self-esteem, and untangling the confounded relation between mood and self-esteem.

Development and validation of a scale for measuring state self-esteem.

Research indicates that people value music primarily because of the emotions it evokes. Yet, the notion of musical emotions remains controversial, and researchers have so far been unable to offer a satisfactory account of such emotions. We argue that the study of musical emotions has suffered from a neglect of underlying mechanisms. Specifically, researchers have studied musical emotions without regard to how they were evoked, or have assumed that the emotions must be based on the "default" mechanism for emotion induction, a cognitive appraisal. Here, we present a novel theoretical framework featuring six additional mechanisms through which music listening may induce emotions: (1) brain stem reflexes, (2) evaluative conditioning, (3) emotional contagion, (4) visual imagery, (5) episodic memory, and (6) musical expectancy. We propose that these mechanisms differ regarding such characteristics as their information focus, ontogenetic development, key brain regions, cultural impact, induction speed, degree of volitional influence, modularity, and dependence on musical structure. By synthesizing theory and findings from different domains, we are able to provide the first set of hypotheses that can help researchers to distinguish among the mechanisms. We show that failure to control for the underlying mechanism may lead to inconsistent or non-interpretable findings. Thus, we argue that the new framework may guide future research and help to resolve previous disagreements in the field. We conclude that music evokes emotions through mechanisms that are not unique to music, and that the study of musical emotions could benefit the emotion field as a whole by providing novel paradigms for emotion induction.

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Emotional responses to music: The need to consider underlying mechanisms

Chronic mild stress-induced anhedonia : a realistic animal model of depression

In this article, we provide an up-to-date overview of theory and research concerning expression, perception, and induction of emotion in music. We also provide a critique of this research, noting t ...

Expression, Perception, and Induction of Musical Emotions: A Review and a Questionnaire Study of Everyday Listening

It is an ancient, and very pervasive, idea that music expresses emotion. Apart from the copious literature to this effect contributed by composers, musicologists, and philosophers, there is also solid empirical evidence from psychological research, reviewed in chapters of this book (e.g. Gabrielsson & Lindstrom, this volume; Juslin, this volume), that listeners often agree rather strongly about what type of emotion is expressed in a particular piece. It is also a pervasive belief that music can, at times, actually produce emotion in listeners. The distinction between perception and production is related to the distinction between cognitivism and emotivism proposed by philosophers in their analysis of emotion in music (e.g. Kivy 1989). Whereas 'emotivists' hold that music elicits real emotional responses in listeners, 'cognitivists' argue that music simply expresses or represents emotions. Our view is that it would be premature to prejudge the issue and that both positions may be perfectly appropriate depending on a number of factors outlined below. Our purpose in this chapter is to provide a formalization of the processes whereby music produces emotional effects in the listener that go beyond the cognitive inference of what the music can be said to express. In addition, we review the pertinent evidence to date and suggest ways in which future research might investigate these processes in a systematic fashion. We state at the outset that our discussion and the review of the available evidence are largely based on Western classical music, thereby restricting the generalizability of our claims to other kinds of music and other cultures. Our attempt at a formalization of emotional effects of music will consist in defining the affective changes that music is supposed to produce in the listener and to identify the determinants of the listening situation (features such as the musical structure of the piece listened to, the interpretation by the performer, relevant state and trait characteristics of the listener, and the respective context). An important issue for discussion will be the relative weighting of the different determinants and the type of their interaction in producing the affective outcome. We follow the senior author's attempt to define the emotional meaning of music in analogy to Buhler's Organon model of language, postulating composition, expression, perception, and production rules to model the different facets of emotional meaning (Scherer, 2000d). In this context, the term rule is used to denote a certain regularity or lawfulness of the effects discussed that can be expressed in concrete predictions or hypotheses. It is not excluded that these rules can be integrated into attempts at computational modelling of the underlying mechanisms (in fact, we consider this a highly desirable option), but we do not feel that the current state of the

/pdf/emotional-effects-of-music-production-rules-57whjrdhcq.pdf

Emotional effects of music: production rules

Musical mood induction: an alternative to the Velten technique.

MIF-1 was tested in an animal model of depression that used unpredictable chronic stress. In this paradigm, rats received either no stressors or a daily protocol of a variety of stressors for 20 days, during which time daily, intraperitoneal injections of various compounds were given. The tricyclic antidepressant imipramine (5 mg/kg) and low doses (0.1 and 1.0 mg/kg) of MIF-1 significantly increased activity and decreased defecation in an open field on day 21. No dose of naloxone (0.01-10.0 mg/kg) acted as an antidepressant. A high dose (10.0 mg/kg) of MIF-1 significantly increased the effects of chronic stress and produced hyperalgesia. Chronically-stressed rats were significantly more analgesic than controls. The results indicate that MIF-1 can act as an antidepressant in this model.

MIF-1 is active in a chronic stress animal model of depression

A Psychophysiological Comparison of the Velten and Musical Mood Induction Techniques

This study deals with beliefs about question-answering processes involving “world knowledge” utilized by young, middle aged, and older adults. Questions intended to induce either fact retrieval or inferential reasoning were shown to younger (n = 37), middle aged (n = 37) and older (n = 37) adults in both a multiple choice and true/false format. Increasing age level was not related to decreased confidence in either fact retrieval or inferential reasoning. Global assessments about these question-answering processes involving “people in general” and self evaluations were taken from the same individuals. In contrast to personal confidence ratings, adults of all ages generally believed in declining fact retrieval abilities in old age. Inferential reasoning, however, often was believed to remain stable or even increase in ability level with increasing age. This was especially true in the assessments generated by older adults and in self evaluations. Thus, negative global beliefs about memory and aging ...

Beliefs about fact retrieval and inferential reasoning across the adult lifespan

The Geriatric Depression Scale is a uait-oriented measure of depression, normed using older ~ndividuals. It consists of 30 true/false statements. One point is given for each "depressed" response. Brink, Yesavage, Lum, Heersema, Adey, and Rose (1982) have suggested that the ranges for normal, mildly depressed, and severely depressed individuals are -9, 10-19, and 20-30, respectively, based on findings that elderly depressive persons and controls had mean scores of 19.2 and 5.0, respectively. Yesavage, Brink, Rose, Lum, Huang, Adey, and Leirer (1983) reported similar means of 5.8, 15.0, and 22.8 for normal, mildly depressed, and severely depressed subjects. Best, Romeis, Davis, Morton, and Yesavage ( 1984) tested both older and younger adults. They reported means for depressed and nondepressed younger individuals as 8.8 and 3.4, respectively. They correlated these scores with responses to the Depression Adjective Checklist, finding a correlation of .64 between scores on the two inventories for younger subjects. The checklist consists of 32 adjectives. Respondents answer yes/no for each, based on whether each adjective describes their current state. One point is given for each "depressed response. This investigation involved an attempt to discover the correlation between scores on the Geriatric Depression Scale and a short form of the checklist for younger subjects. The short form of the checklist consists of 14 adjectives, which are rated on a three-point scale regarding how subjects describe

Michael F. Pignatiello

Papers

Musical mood induction: an alternative to the Velten technique.

MIF-1 is active in a chronic stress animal model of depression

A Psychophysiological Comparison of the Velten and Musical Mood Induction Techniques

Beliefs about fact retrieval and inferential reasoning across the adult lifespan

Self-Report Measures of Depression in College Students