Part I. Experimental Studies: 2. Experiment in psychology 3. Experiments on perceiving III Experiments on imaging 4-8. Experiments on remembering: (a) The method of description (b) The method of repeated reproduction (c) The method of picture writing (d) The method of serial reproduction (e) The method of serial reproduction picture material 9. Perceiving, recognizing, remembering 10. A theory of remembering 11. Images and their functions 12. Meaning Part II. Remembering as a Study in Social Psychology: 13. Social psychology 14. Social psychology and the matter of recall 15. Social psychology and the manner of recall 16. Conventionalism 17. The notion of a collective unconscious 18. The basis of social recall 19. A summary and some conclusions.

Remembering. A Study in Experimental and Social Psychology, Cambridge (University Press) 1964.

False memories—either remembering events that never happened, or remembering them quite differently from the way they happened—have recently captured the attention of both psychologists and the public at large. The primary impetus for this recent surge of interest is the increase in the number of cases in which memories of previously unrecognized abuse are reported during the course of therapy. Some researchers have argued that certain therapeutic practices can cause the creation of false memories, and therefore, the apparent "recovery" of memories during the course of therapy may actually represent the creation of memories (Lindsay & Read, 1994; Loftus, 1993). Although the concept of false memories is currently enjoying an increase in publicity, it is not new; psychologists have been studying false memories in several laboratory paradigms for years. Schacter (in press) provides an historical overview of the study of memory distortions. Bartlett (1932) is usually credited with conducting the first experimental investigation of false memories; he had subjects read an Indian folktale, "The War of the Ghosts," and recall it repeatedly. Although he reported no aggregate data, but only sample protocols, his results seemed to show distortions in subjects' memories over repeated attempts to recall the story. Interestingly, Bartlett's repeated reproduction results never have been successfully replicated by later researchers (see Gauld & Stephenson, 1967; Roediger, Wheeler, & Rajaram, 1993); indeed, Wheeler and Roediger (1992) showed that recall of prose passages (including "The War of the Ghosts")

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Creating false memories: Remembering words not presented in lists.

A theory of ironic processes of mental control is proposed to account for the intentional and counterintentional effects that result from efforts at self-control of mental states. The theory holds that an attempt to control the mind introduces 2 processes: (a) an operating process that promotes the intended change by searching for mental contents consistent with the intended state and (b) a monitoring process that tests whether the operating process is needed by searching for mental contents inconsistent with the intended state. The operating process requires greater cognitive capacity and normally has more pronounced cognitive effects than the monitoring process, and the 2 working together thus promote whatever degree of mental control is enjoyed. Under conditions that reduce capacity, however, the monitoring process may supersede the operating process and thus enhance the person's sensitivity to mental contents that are the ironic opposite of those that are intended.

Ironic processes of mental control.

This paper describes a computerised database of psycholinguistic information. Semantic, syntactic, phonological and orthographic information about some or all of the 98,538 words in the database is accessible, by using a specially-written and very simple programming language. Word-association data are also included in the database. Some examples are given of the use of the database for selection of stimuli to be used in psycholinguistic experimentation or linguistic research.

The MRC Psycholinguistic Database

Life-span developmental psychology involves the study of constancy and change in behavior throughout the life course. One aspect of life-span research has been the advancement of a more general, metatheoretical view on the nature of development. The family of theoretical perspectives associated with this metatheoretical view of life-span developmental psychology includes the recognition of multidirectionality in ontogenetic change, consideration of both age-connected and disconnected developmental factors, a focus on the dynamic and continuous interplay between growth (gain) and decline (loss), emphasis on historical embeddedness and other structural contextual factors, and the study of the range of plasticity in development. Application of the family of perspectives associated with life-span developmental psychology is illustrated for the domain of intellectual development. Two recently emerging perspectives of the family of beliefs are given particular attention. The first proposition is methodological and suggests that plasticity can best be studied with a research strategy called testing-the-limits. The second proposition is theoretical and proffers that any developmental change includes the joint occurrence of gain (growth) and loss (decline) in adaptive capacity. To assess the pattern of positive (gains) and negative (losses) consequences resulting from development, it is necessary to know the criterion demands posed by the individual and the environment during the lifelong process of adaptation. The study of life-span development is not a homogeneous field. It comes in two major interrelated modes. The first mode is the extension of developmental studies across the life course without a major effort at the construction of metatheory that emanates from life-span work. The second mode includes the endeavor to explore whether life-span research has specific implications for the general nature of developmental theory. The second approach represents the topic of this article. Specifically, the purpose of this article is twofold. First, after a brief introduction to the field of life-span developmental psychology, some "prototypical" features of the life-span approach in developmental psychology are presented. Second, these features are illustrated by work in one domain: intellectual development. Although the focus of this paper is on life-span developmental psychology and its theoretical thrust, it is important to recognize at the outset that similar perspectives on developmental theory have been advanced in other quarters of developmental scholarship as well (Hetherington & Baltes, in press; Scan; 1986). There is, however, a major difference in the "gestalt" in which the features of the theoretical perspective of life-span psychology are organized.

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Theoretical propositions of life-span developmental psychology : On the dynamics between growth and decline

Handbook of semantic word norms

Suggestibility of children's memory: Psycholegal implications.

1. Child Sexual and Physical Abuse: Children's Testimony.- 2. Suggestibility and the Child Witness.- 3. Children's Testimony: Age-Related Patterns of Memory Errors.- 4. Memory, Suggestibility, and Eyewitness Testimony in Children and Adults.- 5. Age Differences in Suggestibility: Narrowing the Uncertainties.- 6. Reality Monitoring and Suggestibility: Children's Ability to Discriminate Among Memories From Different Sources.- 7. The Impact of Naturally Occurring Stress on Children's Memory.- 8. The Child in the Eyes of the Jury: Assessing Mock Jurors' Perceptions of the Child Witness.- 9. Children on the Witness Stand: A Communication/Persuasion Analysis of Jurors' Reactions to Child Witnesses.- 10. The Memory of Children.- 11. Getting Out of a Rut: Detours to Less Traveled Paths in Child-Witness Research.- 12. Setting the Stage for Psychological Research on the Child Eyewitness.- Author Index.

Children's eyewitness memory

In two experiments it was revealed that manipulations that increased recall of studied list items also increased false recall of theme-related, critical nonpresented words. In Experiment 1 subjects listened to a series of short word lists, each containing items associatively related to a theme, while engaging in either semantic or nonsemantic processing. On an immediate free recall test semantic processors demonstrated greater correct recall as well as more illusory memories of critical nonpresented items than nonsemantic processors. In Experiment 2, the short study lists were combined to form longer lists that were presented either blocked by theme or in a random presentation order. Retention interval was also varied as participants were tested either immediately, one week after, or three weeks after the study phase. Presenting the target items in a blocked, as opposed to random, format increased recall accuracy, but this was at the expense of a higher intrusion rate for theme-consistent items. Interestingly, the level of false memories was not affected by retention interval even though typical decrements in the recall of study items were observed over time. The results of these experiments highlight the persistence of the false memory effect, as well as pointing to several factors, primarily semantic processing, that may lead to the creation of false memories. Interpretations are offered within the theoretical frameworks of source monitoring and fuzzy trace theory.

Recall Accuracy and Illusory Memories: When More is Less

List of contributors Preface Part I. Cognitive, Physical and Social Processes and Factors Influencing Eyewitness Recall and Identification: 1. Reports of suggested memories: do people truly believe them? Kenneth R. Weingardt, H. Kelly Toland and Elizabeth F. Loftus 2. Memory source monitoring and eyewitness testimony D. Stephen Lindsay 3. Understanding bystander misidentifications: the role of familiarity and contextual knowledge J. Don Read 4. Unconscious transference and lineup identification: toward a memory blending approach David F. Ross, Stephen J. Ceci, David Dunning and Michael P. Toglia 5. Earwitness evidence: memory for a perpetrator's voice A. Daniel Yarmey 6. Whole body information: its relevance to eyewitnesses Malcolm D. MacLeod, Jason N. Frowley and John W. Shepherd 7. Actual victims and witnesses to robbery and fraud: an archival analysis Patricia A. Tollestrup, John W. Turtle and John C. Yuille Part II. Lineup Construction and Collection of Testimony: 8. Conceptual, practical and empirical issues associated with eyewitness identification test media Brian L. Cutler, Garrett L. Berman, Steven Penrod and Ronald P. Fisher 9. Biased lineups: where do they come from? R. C. L. Lindsay 10. Evaluating the fairness of lineups John C. Brigham and Jeffrey E. Pfeifer 11. Recommendations for properly conducted lineup identification tasks Gary L. Wells, Eric P. Seelau, Sheila M. Rydell and C. A. Elizabeth Luus 12. Improving eyewitness testimony with the Cognitive Interview Ronald P. Fisher, Michelle R. McCauley and R. Edward Geiselman Part III. Whom to Believe? Distinguishing Accurate from Inaccurate Eyewitnesses: 13. Distinguishing accurate from inaccurate eyewitness identifications: a reality monitoring approach Lisa Beth Stern and David Dunning 14. Decision times and eyewitness identification accuracy in simultaneous and sequential lineups Siegfried Ludwig Sporer 15. Individual differences in personality and eyewitness identification Harmon Hosch 16. Eyewitness identification confidence C. A. Elizabeth Luus and Gary L. Wells 17. Expectations of eyewitness performance: jurors' verdicts do not follow from their beliefs R. C. L. Lindsay 18. The appraisal of eyewitness testimony Michael R. Leippe Name index Subject index.

Michael P. Toglia

Papers

Handbook of semantic word norms

Suggestibility of children's memory: Psycholegal implications.

Children's eyewitness memory

Recall Accuracy and Illusory Memories: When More is Less

Adult Eyewitness Testimony: Current Trends and Developments