Due to the increased demand of animal protein in developing countries, intensive farming is instigated, which results in antibiotic residues in animal-derived products, and eventually, antibiotic resistance. Antibiotic resistance is of great public health concern because the antibiotic-resistant bacteria associated with the animals may be pathogenic to humans, easily transmitted to humans via food chains, and widely disseminated in the environment via animal wastes. These may cause complicated, untreatable, and prolonged infections in humans, leading to higher healthcare cost and sometimes death. In the said countries, antibiotic resistance is so complex and difficult, due to irrational use of antibiotics both in the clinical and agriculture settings, low socioeconomic status, poor sanitation and hygienic status, as well as that zoonotic bacterial pathogens are not regularly cultured, and their resistance to commonly used antibiotics are scarcely investigated (poor surveillance systems). The challenges that follow are of local, national, regional, and international dimensions, as there are no geographic boundaries to impede the spread of antibiotic resistance. In addition, the information assembled in this study through a thorough review of published findings, emphasized the presence of antibiotics in animal-derived products and the phenomenon of multidrug resistance in environmental samples. This therefore calls for strengthening of regulations that direct antibiotic manufacture, distribution, dispensing, and prescription, hence fostering antibiotic stewardship. Joint collaboration across the world with international bodies is needed to assist the developing countries to implement good surveillance of antibiotic use and antibiotic resistance.

Antibiotic Use in Agriculture and Its Consequential Resistance in Environmental Sources: Potential Public Health Implications

Human health risk assessment of antibiotic resistance associated with antibiotic residues in the environment: A review.

Antibiotics are frequently used in food animal production in developing countries to promote the well-being and growth of animals. This practice provides some economic benefits to producers and consumers at large. Nevertheless, this practice is also associated with a number of concerns. A major concern has been that repeatedly exposing these animals to small doses of antibiotics contributes significantly to antimicrobial resistance, since a good fraction of the antibiotics used are the same or surrogates of antibiotics used in human therapeutic practices. Studies over decades have shown an explicit relationship between antimicrobial use and antimicrobial resistance in veterinary science. Many antibiotics can be purchased over the counter in African countries, and antibiotic resistance is an important issue to address in this region. This review examines some of the risks and benefits associated with antibiotic use in food animals. We conclude that the use of antibiotics in food animal production constitutes a major contributing factor to the current antimicrobial resistance crisis and that antibiotics should only be used for the treatment of sick animals based on prior diagnosis of disease.

Antibiotic use in food animals worldwide, with a focus on Africa: Pluses and minuses

Tetracyclines in the environment: An overview on the occurrence, fate, toxicity, detection, removal methods, and sludge management.

Because of the low concentration levels in plasma, blood, urine, and other metabolites, adequate analytical methods should be used for quantification of drugs at the trace levels. Molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) are tailor made and stable polymers with special molecular recognition abilities that because of their high selectivity can be used for the extraction of selected target analytes and structurally related analogues in many bioanalytical approaches. Nowadays, MIPs are rapidly progressing for the analysis of drugs in biological, environmental, and pharmaceutical samples. In this review, we discuss the novel developments and uses of MIPs as new sorbents and fibers in solid phase extraction (SPE) and solid phase microextraction (SPME), ultrasonic-assisted SPE, sensitive sensors, magnetic separations or conjugating with carbon materials for trace and ultra-trace determination of drugs. We believe that our review will be of assistance to drug analysis and analytical methods with highly selective separations/detections.

Novel developments and trends of analytical methods for drug analysis in biological and environmental samples by molecularly imprinted polymers

Validation of HPLC method for determination of tetracycline residues in chicken meat and liver

The incidence of tetracyclines' (TCs) residue (oxytetracycline, tetracycline, chlorotetracycline and doxycycline) in fresh chicken samples (meat and liver) collected during one year was recorded. TC residues were analysed using an HPLC-DAD method. The limit of detection for meat was 4.4, 5, 10 and 7 ng g(-1) for OTC, TTC, CTC and DOC, respectively, compared with 5.5, 6, 12 and 9 ng g(-1) stated for liver. The recovery of the method ranged from 91% to 70% depending upon both matrix type and tetracycline kind. The results revealed that 66 (44%) samples contained TC residues including 21 (42%) breast, 19 (38%) thigh and 26 (52%) liver samples. The corresponding contaminated ranges were 124-5812, 107-6010 and 103-8148 µg kg(-1). A total of 12 (8%), 13 (7.33%) and 20 (13.33%) samples of breast, thigh and liver, respectively, had TC residues above the Codex maximum residue limit (MRL). Liver samples had a higher incidence and level than those found in breast or thigh samples.

Incidence of tetracycline residues in chicken meat and liver retailed to consumers.

Effect of ordinary cooking procedures on tetracycline residues in chicken meat

Breast and leg of chicken were soaked in NaCl (4%) or STPP (3%) solutions before cooking in convention or microwave ovens. More protein, lower fat and lipid oxidation (TBA) were found in breast than in leg. Moisture percent and total lipids decreased due to cooking process. Chicken parts cooked in microwave had less moisture and TBA values, while protein, total lipids, shear force and cooking loss were more than that cooked conventionally. Microwave cooked roasts were less tender and lighter in colour, but aroma and flavour liked better by cooking in convention oven. Soaking in STPP before cooking retained more moisture protein and fat in chicken parts as compared with NaCl or untreated samples. Moreover, it decreased cooking loss, lipid oxidation, shear value and improved tenderness and flavour.

http://grasasyaceites.revistas.csic.es/index.php/grasasyaceites/article/download/1116/1123

Nadia A. Salama

Papers

Validation of HPLC method for determination of tetracycline residues in chicken meat and liver

Incidence of tetracycline residues in chicken meat and liver retailed to consumers.

Effect of ordinary cooking procedures on tetracycline residues in chicken meat

Evaluation of two cooking methods and precooking treatments on characteristics of chicken breast and leg

Determination of Neopterin and Biopterin in Dried Blood Spot by Tandem Mass Spectrometry in Classic and Atypical Hyperphenylalaninemia