The phosphoenolpyruvate(PEP):carbohydrate phosphotransferase system (PTS) is found only in bacteria, where it catalyzes the transport and phosphorylation of numerous monosaccharides, disaccharides, amino sugars, polyols, and other sugar derivatives. To carry out its catalytic function in sugar transport and phosphorylation, the PTS uses PEP as an energy source and phosphoryl donor. The phosphoryl group of PEP is usually transferred via four distinct proteins (domains) to the transported sugar bound to the respective membrane component(s) (EIIC and EIID) of the PTS. The organization of the PTS as a four-step phosphoryl transfer system, in which all P derivatives exhibit similar energy (phosphorylation occurs at histidyl or cysteyl residues), is surprising, as a single protein (or domain) coupling energy transfer and sugar phosphorylation would be sufficient for PTS function. A possible explanation for the complexity of the PTS was provided by the discovery that the PTS also carries out numerous regulatory functions. Depending on their phosphorylation state, the four proteins (domains) forming the PTS phosphorylation cascade (EI, HPr, EIIA, and EIIB) can phosphorylate or interact with numerous non-PTS proteins and thereby regulate their activity. In addition, in certain bacteria, one of the PTS components (HPr) is phosphorylated by ATP at a seryl residue, which increases the complexity of PTS-mediated regulation. In this review, we try to summarize the known protein phosphorylation-related regulatory functions of the PTS. As we shall see, the PTS regulation network not only controls carbohydrate uptake and metabolism but also interferes with the utilization of nitrogen and phosphorus and the virulence of certain pathogens.

How Phosphotransferase System-Related Protein Phosphorylation Regulates Carbohydrate Metabolism in Bacteria

Streptococcus thermophilus is a major dairy starter used for the manufacture of yoghurt and cheese. The access to three genome sequences, comparative genomics and multilocus sequencing analyses suggests that this species recently emerged and is still undergoing a process of regressive evolution towards a specialised bacterium for growth in milk. Notably, S. thermophilus has maintained a well-developed nitrogen metabolism whereas its sugar catabolism has been subjected to a high level of degeneracy due to a paucity of carbon sources in milk. Furthermore, while pathogenic streptococci are recognised for a high capacity to expose proteins at their cell surface in order to achieve cell adhesion or to escape the host immune system, S. thermophilus has nearly lost this unique feature as well as many virulence-related functions. Although gene decay is obvious in S. thermophilus genome evolution, numerous small genomic islands, which were probably acquired by horizontal gene transfer, comprise important industrial phenotypic traits such as polysaccharide biosynthesis, bacteriocin production, restriction-modification systems or oxygen tolerance.

New insights in the molecular biology and physiology of Streptococcus thermophilus revealed by comparative genomics

Almost all bacteria can adapt efficiently to different nutritional environments by using global regulators that link gene expression to the available intracellular pools of a small number of key metabolites. Here, Abraham L. Sonenshein reviews how Bacillus subtilis uses global regulators to manage traffic through two metabolic intersections that determine the flow of carbon and nitrogen to and from crucial metabolites.

Control of key metabolic intersections in Bacillus subtilis

К пробиотикам относят «живые микроорганизмы, которые при введении в адекватных количествах оказывают положительное влияние на здоровье хозяина» [1]. В то время как применению некоторых из них (Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium) было уделено много внимания, другие были изучены позже, и их важное лечебное действие становится ясным только сейчас. Одним из пробиотиков является грамположительная палочка Bacillus subtilis (B.subtilis). Большинство бактерий рода Bacillus (включая B.subtilis) не опасны для человека и широко распространены в окружающей среде. Их обнаруживают в почве, воде, воздухе и пищевых продуктах (пшеница, другие зерновые культуры, хлебобулочные изделия, соевые продукты, цельное мясо, сырое и пастеризованное молоко). Как следствие, они постоянно попадают в желудочно-кишечный тракт и дыхательные пути, засевая эти отделы. Количество бацилл в кишечнике может достигать 10 КОЕ/г, что сравнимо с аналогичным показателем у Lactobacillus. В связи с этим ряд исследователей рассматривают бактерии рода Bacillus как один из доминирующих компонентов нормальной микрофлоры кишечника [2]. В то же время лечебное введение B.subtilis позволяет использовать данный микроорганизм в качестве пробиотика по четырем основным направлениям: 1) для защиты от кишечных патогенов; 2) от дыхательных патогенов; 3) для устранения дисбактериоза при антибиотикотерапии; 4) для усиления переваривания и продвижения пищи. Упрощенная схема пробиотической активности B.subtilis при патологии желудочнокишечного тракта представлена на рис. 1. Таким образом, в научных работах последних десятилетий были сделаны значительные продвижения в выяснении спектра пробиотической активности B.subtilis, что делает данную бактерию одним из наиболее привлекательных пробиотиков для медицинского применения. В настоящем обзоре мы представляем данные соответствующих экспериментальных и клинических исследований, позволяющих составить впечатление о терапевтическом потенциале B.subtilis. УДК 615.331:579.852.1

Bacillus subtilis. (Book Reviews: The Molecular Biology of the Bacilli; Molecular Cloning and Gene Regulation in Bacilli)

Acetoin is an important physiological metabolite excreted by many microorganisms. The excretion of acetoin, which can be diagnosed by the Voges Proskauer test and serves as a microbial classification marker, has its vital physiological meanings to these microbes mainly including avoiding acification, participating in the regulation of NAD/NADH ratio, and storaging carbon. The well-known anabolism of acetoin involves α-acetolactat synthase and α-acetolactate decarboxylase; yet its catabolism still contains some differing views, although much attention has been focused on it and great advances have been achieved. Current findings in catabolite control protein A (CcpA) mediated carbon catabolite repression may provide a fuller understanding of the control mechanism in bacteria. In this review, we first examine the acetoin synthesis pathways and its physiological meanings and relevancies; then we discuss the relationship between the two conflicting acetoin cleavage pathways, the enzymes of the acetoin dehydro...

Acetoin Metabolism in Bacteria

Bacillus subtilis grown in media containing amino acids or glucose secretes acetate, pyruvate, and large quantities of acetoin into the growth medium. Acetoin can be reused by the bacteria during stationary phase when other carbon sources have been depleted. The acoABCL operon encodes the E1α, E1β, E2, and E3 subunits of the acetoin dehydrogenase complex in B. subtilis. Expression of this operon is induced by acetoin and repressed by glucose in the growth medium. The acoR gene is located downstream from the acoABCL operon and encodes a positive regulator which stimulates the transcription of the operon. The product of acoR has similarities to transcriptional activators of sigma 54-dependent promoters. The four genes of the operon are transcribed from a −12, −24 promoter, and transcription is abolished in acoR and sigL mutants. Deletion analysis showed that DNA sequences more than 85 bp upstream from the transcriptional start site are necessary for full induction of the operon. These upstream activating sequences are probably the targets of AcoR. Analysis of an acoR′-′lacZ strain of B. subtilis showed that the expression of acoR is not induced by acetoin and is repressed by the presence of glucose in the growth medium. Transcription of acoR is also negatively controlled by CcpA, a global regulator of carbon catabolite repression. A specific interaction of CcpA in the upstream region of acoR was demonstrated by DNase I footprinting experiments, suggesting that repression of transcription of acoR is mediated by the binding of CcpA to the promoter region of acoR.

Regulation of the acetoin catabolic pathway is controlled by sigma L in Bacillus subtilis.

In Bacillus subtilis, expression of the rocG gene, encoding glutamate dehydrogenase, and the rocABC operon, involved in arginine catabolism, requires SigL (σ54)-containing RNA polymerase as well as RocR, a positive regulator of the NtrC/NifA family. The RocR protein was purified and shown to bind specifically to the intergenic region located between rocG and the rocABC operon. DNaseI footprinting experiments were used to define the RocR-binding site as an 8 bp inverted repeat, separated by one base pair, forming an imperfect palindrome which is present twice within the rocG–rocABC intergenic region, acting as both a downstream activating sequence (DAS) and an upstream activating sequence (UAS). Point mutations in either of these two sequences significantly lowered expression of both rocG and rocABC. This bidirectional enhancer element retained partial activity even when moved 9 kb downstream of the rocA promoter. Electron microscopy experiments indicated that an intrinsically curved region is located between the UAS/DAS region and the promoter of the rocABC operon. This curvature could facilitate interaction of RocR with σ54-RNA polymerase at the rocABC promoter.

Naima Ould Ali

Papers

Regulation of the acetoin catabolic pathway is controlled by sigma L in Bacillus subtilis.

Specificity of the interaction of RocR with the rocG–rocA intergenic region in Bacillus subtilis