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Using Multivariate Statistics 5th Edition

Culture in Mind – An Enactivist Account

This chapter takes as its point of departure the influential French sociologist Émile Durkheim’s view that religion and ritual are inherently social phenomena (Durkheim, 1912/1965). Although we emphasize the social aspects of religion and ritual in this chapter, this is not to deny the value of approaches that focus on the individual as the unit of analysis. We focus on the role that collective rituals and religious beliefs play in fostering and maintaining cooperation and coordination. This seems to put us once again on Durkheim’s side, insofar as his theory of religion and ritual is functionalist and thus presents them as playing a role in maintaining social order in society. However, we do not seek to defend a functionalist explanation of religion and ritual here. Rather, we aim to consider the effects of these cultural technologies. Our focus is empirical, however, rather than just theoretical. We examine the effects that collective rituals can have on cooperation and coordination by reviewing recent work from experimental and developmental psychology, as well as the fields of cognitive anthropology and cultural evolution. By “ritual,” we mean a culturally sanctioned, collectively performed set of actions that are characterized by such traits as normative rigidity, repetitive redundancy, and functional or causal opacity (Boyer & Liénard, 2006; Liénard & Boyer, 2006; Rappaport, 1999; Rossano, 2012; Whitehouse, 2011). By “religion,” we mean the social and psychological phenomena associated with culturally shared beliefs in supernatural agents or forces (Boyer, 2001; Guthrie, 1993; Jong, 2015; Pyysiäinen, 2003, 2009; Sutherland, 2012)

Ritual and Religion as Social Technologies of Cooperation

Regional differences in personality are associated with a range of consequential outcomes. But which factors are responsible for these differences? Frontier settlement theory suggests that physical topography is a crucial factor shaping the psychological landscape of regions. Hence, we investigated whether topography is associated with regional variation in personality across the United States (n = 3,387,014). Consistent with frontier settlement theory, results from multilevel modelling revealed that mountainous areas were lower on agreeableness, extraversion, neuroticism and conscientiousness but higher on openness to experience. Conditional random forest algorithms confirmed mountainousness as a meaningful predictor of personality when tested against a conservative set of controls. East–west comparisons highlighted potential differences between ecological (driven by physical features) and sociocultural (driven by social norms) effects of mountainous terrain. Gotz et al. find that topography is related to personality across the United States (n = 3,387,014), with people in mountainous areas being less agreeable, extraverted, neurotic and conscientious but more open. East–west comparisons suggest frontier cultural heritage and ecological demands as possible mechanisms.

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Physical topography is associated with human personality.

Roughly four billion people live in cultures with a legacy of rice farm. Recent studies find that rice cultures are more interdependent than herding cultures and wheat-farming cultures. In China, people from rice-farming areas think more holistically and show less implicit individualism than people from wheat-farming areas. These differences are mirrored in micro-level comparisons of neighboring counties differ in rice versus wheat. Research has also found evidence of cultural differences based on rice farming within Japan and around the world. However, we know little about the mechanism of how rice culture is transmitted in the modern world. More research is needed on the mechanisms, as well as other subsistence styles, such as corn farming and cash crops like sugar.

Emerging evidence of cultural differences linked to rice versus wheat agriculture.

It has been suggested that the well-known cultural differences in interdependence across cultures are linked to economic activities, such as farming. However, the underlying processes of how such psychological tendencies are shared among people in a society has not been sufficiently investigated. This article addresses the multilevel processes of how psychological characteristics are shared among people. We focus on collective activities that go beyond the individual's personal economic activities. Multilevel analyses on a large-scale survey (residents of Japanese communities, N = 7,295) of 408 communities, along with a follow-up survey (N = 1,714) of 86 communities, suggested that "concern for reputation" (one aspect of interdependence) was more prevalent in farming communities than in nonfarming communities, not only for farmers, but also for nonfarmers. Furthermore, multilevel mediational analyses suggested that, (a) the proportion of farmers in a community was positively associated with participation in collective activities (e.g., maintenance of community infrastructure) by both farmers and nonfarmers, and (b) this is in turn associated with increased levels of concern for reputation at the community level. Community-level longitudinal analyses revealed that collective activities promoted residents' concern for reputation about two years later. These findings support our "collective activity" hypothesis, and demonstrate that interdependence can be constructed through social interaction via community activities. Fishing was associated with high levels of self-esteem and risk avoidance, and these effects were found only at the individual level. We conclude that economic activities affect social interaction, which in turn affects the multilevel processes of cultural emergence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).

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Naoko Koizumi

Papers

Farming cultivates a community-level shared culture through collective activities: Examining contextual effects with multilevel analyses.