Dermatophytes evolve along with the geography and socioeconomic conditions. Epidermophyton floccosum, Microsporum audouinii and Trichophyton schoenleinii acted as the major pathogens of superficial fungal diseases 100 years ago, but their frequency decreased dramatically since the middle of the twentieth century and they are limited to some less-developed countries nowadays; meanwhile, frequency of Trichophyton rubrum, Trichophyton interdigitale, Trichophyton tonsurans and Microsporum canis increased gradually, and these fungi have become the major species globally. Some other dermatophytes, i.e., Trichophyton violaceum, Trichophyton verrucosum and Microsporum ferrugineum, are mainly endemic in some parts of Africa, Asia and Europe. At present, T. rubrum is the leading pathogen for skin and nail fungal infections, whereas M. canis, T. tonsurans and T. violaceum present as the predominant dermatophytes involved in tinea capitis. Population mobility, changes in human lifestyle and advents of antifungal drugs will continually drive the dermatophyte evolution in the skin microenvironment. Comprehensive observation is needed to better understand this kind of organisms and prospect the trends of their changes in future.

The changing face of dermatophytic infections worldwide.

The disease burden of chronic-relapsing and therapy-refractory superficial dermatophytosis dramatically increased in India within the past 5-6 years. In order to evaluate the prevalence of this trend, 201 skin scrapings were collected from patients from all parts of India and were tested for dermatophytes using both fungal culture and a PCR-ELISA directly performed with native skin scrapings. Fungal culture material was identified by genomic Sanger sequencing of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region and the translation elongation factor (TEF)-1α gene. In total, 149 (74.13%) out of the 201 samples showed a dermatophyte-positive culture result. Out of this, 138 (92.62%) samples were identified as Trichophyton (T.) mentagrophytes and 11 (7.38%) as Trichophyton rubrum. The PCR-ELISA revealed similar results: 162 out of 201 (80.56%) samples were dermatophyte-positive showing 151 (93.21%) T mentagrophytes- and 11 (6.79%) T rubrum-positive samples. In this study, we show for the first time a dramatic Indian-wide switch from T rubrum to T mentagrophytes. Additionally, sequencing revealed a solely occurring T mentagrophytes "Indian ITS genotype" that might be disseminated Indian-wide due to the widespread abuse of topical clobetasol and other steroid molecules mixed with antifungal and antibacterial agents.

The current Indian epidemic of superficial dermatophytosis due to Trichophyton mentagrophytes - a molecular study.

Proteases are ubiquitous enzymes that occur in various biological systems ranging from microorganisms to higher organisms. Microbial proteases are largely utilized in various established industrial processes. Despite their numerous industrial applications, they are not efficient in hydrolysis of recalcitrant, protein-rich keratinous wastes which result in environmental pollution and health hazards. This paved the way for the search of keratinolytic microorganisms having the ability to hydrolyze “hard to degrade” keratinous wastes. This new class of proteases is known as “keratinases”. Due to their specificity, keratinases have an advantage over normal proteases and have replaced them in many industrial applications, such as nematicidal agents, nitrogenous fertilizer production from keratinous waste, animal feed and biofuel production. Keratinases have also replaced the normal proteases in the leather industry and detergent additive application due to their better performance. They have also been p...

Microbial keratinases: industrial enzymes with waste management potential

Keratinases are proteolytic enzymes predominantly active when keratin substrates are available that attack disulfide bridges in the keratin to convert them from complex to simplified forms. Keratinases are essential in preparation of animal nutrients, protein supplements, leather manufacture, textile processing, detergent formulation, feather meal processing for feed and fertilizer, the pharmaceutical and biomedical industries, and waste management. Accordingly, it is necessary to develop a method for continuous production of keratinase from reliable sources that can be easily managed. Microbial keratinase is less expensive than conventionally produced keratinase and can be obtained from fungi, bacteria, and actinomycetes. In this overview, the expansion of information about microbial keratinases and important considerations in keratinase production are discussed.

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Biotechnological Aspects and Perspective of Microbial Keratinase Production

A spectre is haunting Indian dermatology – the spectre of dermatophytosis. Dermatophytoses have always been among the commonest infective dermatoses in India. However, the current perception among practicing Indian dermatologists based on their daily experience in the outpatients’ clinics is that there is a huge change in clinical profile, both qualitative and quantitative, in the patients presenting with dermatophytosis. It is impossible to tell how much of this widely perceived change is the product of primarily the host, agent, environmental or pharmacological factors and how much of it is secondary to a change in the health‐seeking behavior of the Indian patient. The latter is primarily governed by the ease with which a plethora of drugs, including many irrational combinations containing topical steroids, are available. The infection is apparently much more resilient, having a tendency to recur more frequently and the overall number of patients presenting with chronic/recurrent/ recalcitrant dermatophytosis is much more. A disease that was taken for granted and hence treated with predictable results is now becoming a cause of anxiety and trepidation for the dermatologist. In such a scenario, the need of the hour for the practitioner is an evidence‐based management guideline that will account for the changes in epidemiology and pathogenetic behavior of the fungi, if any.

The menace of dermatophytosis in India: The evidence that we need.

Clinico-mycological profile of dermatophytosis in Jaipur, Rajasthan

Summary

Screening of 217 soil samples of different habitats, such as PG study centre, garden, farmhouse, nursery, roadside, hostel, animal habitat, bird habitat, marriage garden, temple, vegetable market and house dust, was carried out for the presence of dermatophytes and related fungi in relation to soil pH. A total of 461 isolates belonging to 26 genera and 34 species were recorded. Soil pH values vary from 3 to 10.5. Trichophyton verrucosum, Microsporum audouinii and M. canis were isolated for the first time in Jaipur from pH range 7.0 to 9.0. Chrysosporium tropicum (46.08%) was the most predominant fungus isolated from pH range 6.5 to 9.5. Trichophyton mentagrophytes (24.88%) was the second most common fungal species isolated from pH 6.5 to 9.5. Most of the keratinophilic fungi were isolated from pH 6.5 to 8.5. Only one isolate of Fusarium moniliforme was reported from a highly acidic site at pH 3. Roadside and garden soils were found to be the most suitable sites for almost all keratinophilic fungi.

Distribution of dermatophytes and other related fungi in Jaipur city, with particular reference to soil pH

Background:Soil is well known to support the transient or ongoing existence of keratinophilic fungi and potential source of infection for human and animals Methods:Samples were collected from 67 sites of university campus like PG study centers, playgrounds, gardens, hostels, administrative blocks, library, bank, canteen and road side for the estimation of keratinophilic fungi using the hair baiting technique. Results:Totally, 192 isolates belonging to 14 genera and 21 species were reported. Soil pH range varies from 6.5 to 9.0 pH. Most of the fungi isolated from neutral to slightly alkaline soil. Chrysosporium tropicum (20.83%) was the most predominant fungi reported from all sites. Trichophyton mentagrophytes (15.10%) was the second most commonly reported fungi. Chrysosporium indicum (11.45%),T. simii(9.37%),C.evolceanui (8.83%)T. terrestre (4.68%) andCephaliophor a irregularies (4.68%) were frequently reported. Microsporum audouinii, Paceliomyces sp., Cladosporium sp.and Sporothrix schenckii were isolated for the first time from Jaipur. Conclusion:Road sides were found most suitable for the occurrence of all most all keratinophilic fungi. Higher incidence of keratinophilic fungi was found in hostel sides followed by road sides, PG study centers and play grounds.

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Biodiversity of Keratinophilic Fungal Flora in University Campus, Jaipur, India

The aim of present investigation is to analysis the chemical compositions of essential oil obtained from Citrus lemon L. fruit peel collected from local market of Jaipur, Rajasthan through GC and G...

Evaluation of Citrus lemon Essential Oil for its Chemical and Biological Properties Against Fungi Causing Dermatophytic Infection in Human Beings

The incidence of dermatophytoses in patients attending the Department of Skin, Sawai Man Singh Hospital, Jaipur was studied for a period of six months. Out of 75 cases, 28 patients suffered from Tinea corporis, 14 from Tinea capitis and the remaining 33 from Tinea pedis, Tinea manum, Tinea cruris and Tinea unguium. The infections were found to be more prevalent in adults between the ages of 18 and 50, but infection of T. capitis was common among children below 12 years. Trichophyton rubrum, T. mentagrophytes, T. violecium and Chrysosporium tropicum were the main causal organisms of ringworm. T. rubrum was the causal pathogen in 34% of the positive cases. Chrysosporium indicum, Gymnoascus sp., Trichophyton terrestre and Torula sp. were isolated for the first time from skin infections in our study from different clinical types.

Neetu Jain

Papers

Clinico-mycological profile of dermatophytosis in Jaipur, Rajasthan

Distribution of dermatophytes and other related fungi in Jaipur city, with particular reference to soil pH

Biodiversity of Keratinophilic Fungal Flora in University Campus, Jaipur, India

Evaluation of Citrus lemon Essential Oil for its Chemical and Biological Properties Against Fungi Causing Dermatophytic Infection in Human Beings

Dermatophytoses in Jaipur: Study of incidence, clinical features and causal agents