This study draws on three different, yet complementary, theories of motivation, which we combine in an interactive manner, to explain the mechanisms that underlie the exchange between knowledge providers and recipients and ultimately impact performance. More specifically, we use incentive, goal-setting-social cognitive, and social motivation theories to examine knowledge sharing within dyads and its influence on individual performance. One hundred and twenty participants functioning as interdependent manager dyads completed a strategic decision-making simulation. Hierarchical regression and random coefficient modeling techniques were used to test hypothesized relationships. Results demonstrated that the effect of group-oriented incentive systems on the knowledge provider was enhanced when more positive norms for knowledge sharing existed among dyad members. The recipient's self-efficacy had a stronger relationship with performance goals when the recipient trusted the provider. Finally, self-set goals and knowledge sharing had both direct and interactive effects on individual performance. We argue that these findings constitute a useful advance in middle-range motivation (Landy and Becker 1987, Pinder 1984) theory pertaining to knowledge sharing and utilization.

A Multilevel Investigation of the Motivational Mechanisms Underlying Knowledge Sharing and Performance

Uses survey research to investigate two general questions concerning managerial competencies and performance appraisal: whether a set of managerial competencies currently being used by organizations to describe successful managers can be identified; and whether organizations are appraising these same competencies as part of their managerial performance appraisal processes The six competencies most often identified as critical to managerial success appear to be proper choices, given the discussion of the attributes needed for a competency to be effective The results also show, however, that many of these same organizations are not appraising these competencies in their managerial‐performance appraisal processes Concludes that failure to appraise the competencies reduces the effectiveness of the competencies and the managerial performance appraisal programs

Managerial competencies and the managerial performance appraisal process

We investigate the organizational pursuit of seemingly impossible goals—commonly known as stretch goals. Building from our analysis of the mechanisms through which stretch goals could influence organizational learning and performance, we offer a contingency framework evaluating which organizations are positioned to benefit from such extreme goals and which are most likely to pursue them. We conclude that stretch goals are, paradoxically, most seductive for organizations that can least afford the risks associated with them.

The paradox of stretch goals: organizations in pursuit of the seemingly impossible

Aligning strategic human resource management and person–environment fit

This article reports the results of a study on the current status and future trends in diversity initiatives in the workplace as perceived by a group of twelve experts. The experts were surveyed through in-depth, open-ended telephone interviews. The study identified barriers that have inhibited the employment, development, retention, and promotion of diverse groups in the workplace and the significant factors that are influencing diversity initiatives. It revealed that the primary reasons for managing diversity are to improve productivity and remain competitive, to form better work relationships among employees, to enhance social responsibility, and to address legal concerns. This article presents these findings as well as the best strategies for managing diversity. It also discusses components of an effective diversity training program and future trends related to diversity.

Current status and future trends of diversity initiatives in the workplace: Diversity experts' perspective

Executive Overview The intensity of competition has increased dramatically over the past two decades. This has led many organizations to develop specialized approaches to support creative problem solving and generate high levels of performance. One of these innovative approaches, stretch targets, enhances motivation, performance, and creative decision making. Yet just stretching targets will not guarantee success. Other changes in the work environment and organizational culture are also needed. Stretch targets must include work environment changes that encourage acceptance. Two factors that we call “bureaucratic immunity” and “structural accommodation” encourage this acceptance. This article views each of these concepts as essential precursors for matching reach and grasp.

Stretch targets: What makes them effective?

The Aligned Balanced Scorecard:: An Improved Tool for Building High Performance Organizations

Strategic Downsizing: Human Resource Planning Approaches

The New Management Development Paradigm

T he improvement of organizational and employee performance is an ongoing journey. Researchers have consistently identified effective goal setting as a major factor in the improvement of performance. However, the key is effective. As quality examiners who continuously use the Baldrige criteria, we have seen abundant examples of organizations that poorly articulate goals and strategies into a poorly aligned set of actions. Goals and strategies that are not translated into measures of performance and that are not well-linked lead to an unfocused and uncoordinated effort for reaching key goals across the organization. The development of the Balanced Scorecard (BSC) approach, an excellent tool for improving organization goal alignment and focus, has been attributed to several sources in Europe and to David Norton and Robert Kaplan in the United States. The name ‘‘Balanced Scorecard’’ comes from the idea that measurable statistics form the basis of the approach (a scorecard) and metrics are applied for different but related elements important to the organization’s success. The categories of metrics form a balanced set of measures to assess organizational performance. Since its inception, the BSC approach has been adopted in many forms by numerous organizations with fairly consistent and positive results. Some reports estimate that forty percent of the Fortune top 1000 companies will have used, by the end of 2007, some form of the Balanced Scorecard. Unfortunately, there have not been welldocumented longitudinal studies to support the efficacy of the Balanced Scorecard approach. As the BSC approach has been modified to meet different organizational applications, measurement of its efficacy across organizations in a controlled setting has been difficult. While the specific BSC approach has not been assessed through a robust statistical methodology, hundreds of studies that have used rigorous statistical methodology have supported the efficacy of goal setting. The Aligned Balanced Scorecard approach that we advocate adds two dimensions to goal setting: (a) the alignment of goals across organizational units and (b) the linking of components through downstream and upstream goal structures. This article advocates the use of an ‘‘Aligned Balanced Scorecard (ABS)’’ as a means to enhance the scorecard approach in order to improve leadership effectiveness as a tool for developing high performance management systems. First, we will review the evolution of the Balanced Scorecard and then we will indicate some current problems in the application of the scorecard. We will then propose the use of the ‘‘Aligned Organizational Dynamics, Vol. xxx, No. xxx, pp. xxx–xxx, 2008 ISSN 0090-2616/$ – see frontmatter 2008 Published by Elsevier Inc. doi:10.1016/j.orgdyn.2008.07.006 www.elsevier.com/locate/orgdyn

Nicholas J. Mathys

Papers

Stretch targets: What makes them effective?

The Aligned Balanced Scorecard:: An Improved Tool for Building High Performance Organizations

Strategic Downsizing: Human Resource Planning Approaches

The New Management Development Paradigm

An Improved Tool for Building High Performance Organizations