Geographic routing offers a radical departure from previous topology-dependent routing paradigms through its use of physical location in the routing process. Geographic routing protocols eliminate dependence on topology storage and the associated costs, which also makes them more suitable to handling dynamic behavior frequently found in wireless ad-hoc networks. Geographic routing protocols have been designed for a variety of applications ranging from mobility prediction and management through to anonymous routing and from energy efficiency to QoS. Geographic routing is also part of the larger area of context-awareness due to its usage of location data to make routing decisions and thus represents an important step in the journey towards ubiquitous computing. The focus of this paper, within the area of geographic routing is on wireless ad-hoc networks and how location information can benefit routing. This paper aims to provide both a comprehensive and methodical survey of existing literature in the area of geographic routing from its inception as well as acting as an introduction to the subject.

A Survey of Geographical Routing in Wireless Ad-Hoc Networks

We propose an embedding and routing scheme for arbitrary network connectivity graphs, based on greedy routing and utilizing virtual node coordinates. In dynamic multihop packet-switching communication networks, routing elements can join or leave during network operation or exhibit intermittent failures. We present an algorithm for online greedy graph embedding in the hyperbolic plane that enables incremental embedding of network nodes as they join the network, without disturbing the global embedding. Even a single link or node removal may invalidate the greedy routing success guarantees in network embeddings based on an embedded spanning tree subgraph. As an alternative to frequent reembedding of temporally dynamic network graphs in order to retain the greedy embedding property, we propose a simple but robust generalization of greedy distance routing called Gravity-Pressure (GP) routing. Our routing method always succeeds in finding a route to the destination provided that a path exists, even if a significant fraction of links or nodes is removed subsequent to the embedding. GP routing does not require precomputation or maintenance of special spanning subgraphs and, as demonstrated by our numerical evaluation, is particularly suitable for operation in tandem with our proposed algorithm for online graph embedding.

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Hyperbolic Embedding and Routing for Dynamic Graphs

This paper addresses the problem of delivering data packets for highly dynamic mobile ad hoc networks in a reliable and timely manner. Most existing ad hoc routing protocols are susceptible to node mobility, especially for large-scale networks. Driven by this issue, we propose an efficient Position-based Opportunistic Routing (POR) protocol which takes advantage of the stateless property of geographic routing and the broadcast nature of wireless medium. When a data packet is sent out, some of the neighbor nodes that have overheard the transmission will serve as forwarding candidates, and take turn to forward the packet if it is not relayed by the specific best forwarder within a certain period of time. By utilizing such in-the-air backup, communication is maintained without being interrupted. The additional latency incurred by local route recovery is greatly reduced and the duplicate relaying caused by packet reroute is also decreased. In the case of communication hole, a Virtual Destination-based Void Handling (VDVH) scheme is further proposed to work together with POR. Both theoretical analysis and simulation results show that POR achieves excellent performance even under high node mobility with acceptable overhead and the new void handling scheme also works well.

Toward Reliable Data Delivery for Highly Dynamic Mobile Ad Hoc Networks

This paper addresses the problem of delivering data packets for highly dynamic mobile ad hoc networks in a reliable and timely manner Most existing ad hoc routing protocols are susceptible to node mobility, especially for large-scale networks Driven by this issue, we propose an efficient Position based Opportunistic Routing protocol (POR) which takes advantage of the stateless property of geographic routing and the broadcast nature of wireless medium When a data packet is sent out, some of the neighbor nodes that have overheard the transmission will serve as forwarding candidates, and take turn to forward the packet if it is not relayed by the specific best forwarder within a certain period of time By utilizing such in-the-air backup, communication is maintained without being interrupted The additional latency incurred by local route recovery is greatly reduced and the duplicate relaying caused by packet reroute is also decreased In case of communication hole, a Virtual Destination based Void Handling (VDVH) scheme is further proposed to work together with POR Both theoretical analysis and simulation results show that POR achieves excellent performance even under high node mobility with acceptable overhead and the new void handling scheme also works well Index Terms-Geographic routing,

A survey on position - based routing in mobile ad hoc networks

We present a new approach for generating virtual coordinates that produces usable coordinates quickly and improves the routing performance of existing geographic routing algorithms Starting from a set of initial coordinates derived from a set of elected perimeter nodes, greedy embedding spring coordinates (GSpring) detects possible dead ends and uses a modified spring relaxation algorithm to incrementally adjust virtual coordinates to increase the convexity of voids in the virtual routing topology This reduces the probability that packets will end up in dead ends during greedy forwarding The coordinates derived by GSpring achieve routing stretch that is up to 50% lower than that for NoGeo, the best existing algorithm for deriving virtual Euclidean coordinates for geographic routing For realistic network topologies with obstacles, GSpring coordinates achieves from between 10 to 15% better routing stretch than actual physical coordinates

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Greedy Virtual Coordinates for Geographic Routing

Geographic ad hoc networks use position information for routing. They often utilize stateless greedy forwarding and require the use of recovery algorithms when the greedy approach fails. We propose a novel idea based on virtual repositioning of nodes that allows to increase the efficiency of greedy routing and significantly increase the success of the recovery algorithm based on local information alone.We explain he problem of predicting dead ends which the greedy algorithm may reach and bypassing voids in the network, and introduce NEAR, Node Elevation Ad-hoc Routing, a solution that incorporates both virtual positioning and routing algorithms that improve performance in ad-hoc networks containing voids. We demonstrate by simulations the advantages of our algorithm over other geographic ad-hoc routing solutions.

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Minimizing recovery state In geographic ad-hoc routing

Geographic ad hoc networks use position information for routing. They often utilize stateless greedy forwarding and require the use of recovery algorithms when the greedy approach fails. We propose a novel idea based on virtual repositioning of nodes that allows to increase the efficiency of greedy routing and significantly increase the success of the recovery algorithm based on local information alone. We explain the problem of predicting dead ends which the greedy algorithm may reach and bypassing voids in the network, and introduce NEAR, node elevation ad-hoc routing, a solution that incorporates both virtual positioning and routing algorithms that improve performance in ad-hoc networks containing voids. We demonstrate by simulations the advantages of our algorithm over other geographic ad-hoc routing solutions.

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Noa Arad

Papers

Minimizing recovery state In geographic ad-hoc routing

Minimizing Recovery State in Geographic Ad Hoc Routing