抗原变异可使得多种致病微生物易于逃避宿主免疫应答。表达在感染红细胞表面的恶性疟原虫红细胞表面蛋白1（PfPMP1）与感染红细胞、内皮细胞、树突状细胞以及胎盘的单个或多个受体作用，在黏附及免疫逃避中起关键的作用。每个单倍体基因组var基因家族编码约60种成员，通过启动转录不同的var基因变异体为抗原变异提供了分子基础。

疟原虫var基因转换速率变化导致抗原变异[英]／Paul H, Robert P, Christodoulou Z, et al//Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A

"Quantum sensing" describes the use of a quantum system, quantum properties or quantum phenomena to perform a measurement of a physical quantity Historical examples of quantum sensors include magnetometers based on superconducting quantum interference devices and atomic vapors, or atomic clocks More recently, quantum sensing has become a distinct and rapidly growing branch of research within the area of quantum science and technology, with the most common platforms being spin qubits, trapped ions and flux qubits The field is expected to provide new opportunities - especially with regard to high sensitivity and precision - in applied physics and other areas of science In this review, we provide an introduction to the basic principles, methods and concepts of quantum sensing from the viewpoint of the interested experimentalist

Quantum sensing

This Review article provides an overview of the fundamental origins and important applications of the main spin–orbit interaction phenomena in modern optics that play a crucial role at subwavelength scales. Light carries both spin and orbital angular momentum. These dynamical properties are determined by the polarization and spatial degrees of freedom of light. Nano-optics, photonics and plasmonics tend to explore subwavelength scales and additional degrees of freedom of structured — that is, spatially inhomogeneous — optical fields. In such fields, spin and orbital properties become strongly coupled with each other. In this Review we cover the fundamental origins and important applications of the main spin–orbit interaction phenomena in optics. These include: spin-Hall effects in inhomogeneous media and at optical interfaces, spin-dependent effects in nonparaxial (focused or scattered) fields, spin-controlled shaping of light using anisotropic structured interfaces (metasurfaces) and robust spin-directional coupling via evanescent near fields. We show that spin–orbit interactions are inherent in all basic optical processes, and that they play a crucial role in modern optics.

Spin-orbit interactions of light

Recent progress in understanding the topological properties of condensed matter has led to the discovery of time-reversal-invariant topological insulators. A remarkable and useful property of these materials is that they support unidirectional spin-polarized propagation at their surfaces. Unfortunately topological insulators are rare among solid-state materials. Using suitably designed electromagnetic media (metamaterials) we theoretically demonstrate a photonic analogue of a topological insulator. We show that metacrystals-superlattices of metamaterials with judiciously designed properties-provide a platform for designing topologically non-trivial photonic states, similar to those that have been identified for condensed-matter topological insulators. The interfaces of the metacrystals support helical edge states that exhibit spin-polarized one-way propagation of photons, robust against disorder. Our results demonstrate the possibility of attaining one-way photon transport without application of external magnetic fields or breaking of time-reversal symmetry. Such spin-polarized one-way transport enables exotic spin-cloaked photon sources that do not obscure each other.

Photonic topological insulators

This article reviews recent theoretical and experimental advances in the fundamental understanding and active control of quantum fluids of light in nonlinear optical systems. In the presence of effective photon-photon interactions induced by the optical nonlinearity of the medium, a many-photon system can behave collectively as a quantum fluid with a number of novel features stemming from its intrinsically nonequilibrium nature. A rich variety of recently observed photon hydrodynamical effects is presented, from the superfluid flow around a defect at low speeds, to the appearance of a Mach-Cherenkov cone in a supersonic flow, to the hydrodynamic formation of topological excitations such as quantized vortices and dark solitons at the surface of large impenetrable obstacles. While the review is mostly focused on a specific class of semiconductor systems that have been extensively studied in recent years (planar semiconductor microcavities in the strong light-matter coupling regime having cavity polaritons as elementary excitations), the very concept of quantum fluids of light applies to a broad spectrum of systems, ranging from bulk nonlinear crystals, to atomic clouds embedded in optical fibers and cavities, to photonic crystal cavities, to superconducting quantum circuits based on Josephson junctions. The conclusive part of the article is devoted to a review of the future perspectives in the direction of strongly correlated photon gases and of artificial gauge fields for photons. In particular, several mechanisms to obtain efficient photon blockade are presented, together with their application to the generation of novel quantum phases.

Quantum fluids of light

We have detected a spin-dependent displacement perpendicular to the refractive index gradient for photons passing through an air-glass interface. The effect is the photonic version of the spin Hall effect in electronic systems, indicating the universality of the effect for particles of different nature. Treating the effect as a weak measurement of the spin projection of the photons, we used a preselection and postselection technique on the spin state to enhance the original displacement by nearly four orders of magnitude, attaining sensitivity to displacements of ∼1 angstrom. The spin Hall effect can be used for manipulating photonic angular momentum states, and the measurement technique holds promise for precision metrology.

http://science.sciencemag.org/content/sci/319/5864/787.full.pdf

Observation of the Spin Hall Effect of Light via Weak Measurements

Quantum metrology uses quantum entanglement--correlations in the properties of microscopic systems--to improve the statistical precision of physical measurements. When measuring a signal, such as the phase shift of a light beam or an atomic state, a prominent limitation to achievable precision arises from the noise associated with the counting of uncorrelated probe particles. This noise, commonly referred to as shot noise or projection noise, gives rise to the standard quantum limit (SQL) to phase resolution. However, it can be mitigated down to the fundamental Heisenberg limit by entangling the probe particles. Despite considerable experimental progress in a variety of physical systems, a question that persists is whether these methods can achieve performance levels that compare favourably with optimized conventional (non-entangled) systems. Here we demonstrate an approach that achieves unprecedented levels of metrological improvement using half a million (87)Rb atoms in their 'clock' states. The ensemble is 20.1 ± 0.3 decibels (100-fold) spin-squeezed via an optical-cavity-based measurement. We directly resolve small microwave-induced rotations 18.5 ± 0.3 decibels (70-fold) beyond the SQL. The single-shot phase resolution of 147 microradians achieved by the apparatus is better than that achieved by the best engineered cold atom sensors despite lower atom numbers. We infer entanglement of more than 680 ± 35 particles in the atomic ensemble. Applications include atomic clocks, inertial sensors, and fundamental physics experiments such as tests of general relativity or searches for electron electric dipole moment. To this end, we demonstrate an atomic clock measurement with a quantum enhancement of 10.5 ± 0.3 decibels (11-fold), limited by the phase noise of our microwave source.

Measurement noise 100 times lower than the quantum-projection limit using entangled atoms

Reset your perceptions for a foray into the quantum world. Counterfactual computation has been proposed as a logical consequence of quantum mechanics. Using appropriate algorithms, the theory goes, it should be possible to infer the outcome of a quantum computation without actually running the computer. Hosten et al. now report experimental confirmation that this does indeed happen. Their all-optical quantum computer was prepared in a superposition of interacting with and not interacting with an algorithm, and they obtained information about the result even when the photon did not interact with the algorithm. Surprisingly, the counterfactual approach worked better than randomly guessing the solution. It should be possible to use a similar approach in other systems, including the trapped ions popular in quantum computing architecture. The logic underlying the coherent nature of quantum information processing often deviates from intuitive reasoning, leading to surprising effects. Counterfactual computation constitutes a striking example: the potential outcome of a quantum computation can be inferred, even if the computer is not run1. Relying on similar arguments to interaction-free measurements2 (or quantum interrogation3), counterfactual computation is accomplished by putting the computer in a superposition of ‘running’ and ‘not running’ states, and then interfering the two histories. Conditional on the as-yet-unknown outcome of the computation, it is sometimes possible to counterfactually infer information about the solution. Here we demonstrate counterfactual computation, implementing Grover's search algorithm with an all-optical approach4. It was believed that the overall probability of such counterfactual inference is intrinsically limited1,5, so that it could not perform better on average than random guesses. However, using a novel ‘chained’ version of the quantum Zeno effect6, we show how to boost the counterfactual inference probability to unity, thereby beating the random guessing limit. Our methods are general and apply to any physical system, as illustrated by a discussion of trapped-ion systems. Finally, we briefly show that, in certain circumstances, counterfactual computation can eliminate errors induced by decoherence.

/pdf/counterfactual-quantum-computation-through-quantum-56opgerdr3.pdf

Counterfactual quantum computation through quantum interrogation

Quantum metrology exploits entangled states of particles to improve sensing precision beyond the limit achievable with uncorrelated particles. All previous methods required detection noise levels below this standard quantum limit to realize the benefits of the intrinsic sensitivity provided by these states. We experimentally demonstrate a widely applicable method for entanglement-enhanced measurements without low-noise detection. The method involves an intermediate quantum phase magnification step that eases implementation complexity. We used it to perform squeezed-state metrology 8 decibels below the standard quantum limit with a detection system that has a noise floor 10 decibels above the standard quantum limit.

http://science.sciencemag.org/content/sci/352/6293/1552.full.pdf

Quantum phase magnification

Bell correlations, indicating nonlocality in composite quantum systems, were until recently only seen in small systems. Here, we demonstrate Bell correlations in squeezed states of 5×10^{5} ^{87}Rb atoms. The correlations are inferred using collective measurements as witnesses and are statistically significant to 124 standard deviations. The states are both generated and characterized using optical-cavity aided measurements.

/pdf/bell-correlations-in-spin-squeezed-states-of-500-000-atoms-4eha8a80zw.pdf

Onur Hosten

Papers

Observation of the Spin Hall Effect of Light via Weak Measurements

Measurement noise 100 times lower than the quantum-projection limit using entangled atoms

Counterfactual quantum computation through quantum interrogation

Quantum phase magnification

Bell Correlations in Spin-Squeezed States of 500 000 Atoms.