This document summarises the conclusions of a European Respiratory Society Task Force on the diagnosis and management of obstructive sleep disordered breathing (SDB) in childhood and refers to children aged 2-18 years. Prospective cohort studies describing the natural history of SDB or randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials regarding its management are scarce. Selected evidence (362 articles) can be consolidated into seven management steps. SDB is suspected when symptoms or abnormalities related to upper airway obstruction are present (step 1). Central nervous or cardiovascular system morbidity, growth failure or enuresis and predictors of SDB persistence in the long-term are recognised (steps 2 and 3), and SDB severity is determined objectively preferably using polysomnography (step 4). Children with an apnoea-hypopnoea index (AHI) >5 episodes·h(-1), those with an AHI of 1-5 episodes·h(-1) and the presence of morbidity or factors predicting SDB persistence, and children with complex conditions (e.g. Down syndrome and Prader-Willi syndrome) all appear to benefit from treatment (step 5). Treatment interventions are usually implemented in a stepwise fashion addressing all abnormalities that predispose to SDB (step 6) with re-evaluation after each intervention to detect residual disease and to determine the need for additional treatment (step 7).

https://erj.ersjournals.com/content/erj/47/1/69.full.pdf

Obstructive sleep disordered breathing in 2- to 18-year-old children: diagnosis and management.

OBJECTIVE To systematically review the literature for articles evaluating myofunctional therapy (MT) as treatment for obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) in children and adults and to perform a meta-analysis on the polysomnographic, snoring, and sleepiness data. DATA SOURCES Web of Science, Scopus, MEDLINE, and The Cochrane Library. REVIEW METHODS The searches were performed through June 18, 2014. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) statement was followed. RESULTS Nine adult studies (120 patients) reported polysomnography, snoring, and/or sleepiness outcomes. The pre- and post-MT apneahypopnea indices (AHI) decreased from a mean ± standard deviation (M ± SD) of 24.5 ± 14.3/h to 12.3 ± 11.8/h, mean difference (MD) -14.26 [95% confidence interval (CI) -20.98, -7.54], P < 0.0001. Lowest oxygen saturations improved from 83.9 ± 6.0% to 86.6 ± 7.3%, MD 4.19 (95% CI 1.85, 6.54), P = 0.0005. Polysomnography snoring decreased from 14.05 ± 4.89% to 3.87 ± 4.12% of total sleep time, P < 0.001, and snoring decreased in all three studies reporting subjective outcomes. Epworth Sleepiness Scale decreased from 14.8 ± 3.5 to 8.2 ± 4.1. Two pediatric studies (25 patients) reported outcomes. In the first study of 14 children, the AHI decreased from 4.87 ± 3.0/h to 1.84 ± 3.2/h, P = 0.004. The second study evaluated children who were cured of OSA after adenotonsillectomy and palatal expansion, and found that 11 patients who continued MT remained cured (AHI 0.5 ± 0.4/h), whereas 13 controls had recurrent OSA (AHI 5.3 ± 1.5/h) after 4 y. CONCLUSION Current literature demonstrates that myofunctional therapy decreases apnea-hypopnea index by approximately 50% in adults and 62% in children. Lowest oxygen saturations, snoring, and sleepiness outcomes improve in adults. Myofunctional therapy could serve as an adjunct to other obstructive sleep apnea treatments.

/pdf/myofunctional-therapy-to-treat-obstructive-sleep-apnea-a-4osd1vuwql.pdf

Myofunctional Therapy to Treat Obstructive Sleep Apnea: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is commonly associated with disordered or disturbed sleep. The relationships of ADHD with sleep problems, psychiatric comorbidities and medications are complex and multidirectional. Evidence from published studies comparing sleep in individuals with ADHD with typically developing controls is most concordant for associations of ADHD with: hypopnea/apnea and peripheral limb movements in sleep or nocturnal motricity in polysomnographic studies; increased sleep onset latency and shorter sleep time in actigraphic studies; and bedtime resistance, difficulty with morning awakenings, sleep onset difficulties, sleep-disordered breathing, night awakenings and daytime sleepiness in subjective studies. ADHD is also frequently coincident with sleep disorders (obstructive sleep apnea, peripheral limb movement disorder, restless legs syndrome and circadian-rhythm sleep disorders). Psychostimulant medications are associated with disrupted or disturbed sleep, but also ‘paradoxically’ calm some patients with ADHD for sleep by alleviating their symptoms. Long-acting formulations may have insufficient duration of action, leading to symptom rebound at bedtime. Current guidelines recommend assessment of sleep disturbance during evaluation of ADHD, and before initiation of pharmacotherapy, with healthy sleep practices the first-line option for addressing sleep problems. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the relationships between ADHD and sleep, and presents a conceptual model of the modes of interaction: ADHD may cause sleep problems as an intrinsic feature of the disorder; sleep problems may cause or mimic ADHD; ADHD and sleep problems may interact, with reciprocal causation and possible involvement of comorbidity; and ADHD and sleep problems may share a common underlying neurological etiology.

https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2Fs12402-014-0151-0.pdf

Associations of sleep disturbance with ADHD: implications for treatment

The incidence of thyroid cancer in the United States has tripled in 30 years, rising rapidly since the 1990s. This substantial increase, chiefly comprising small papillary cancers, has been attributed to widespread diagnosis of subclinical disease.1 Autopsy studies show a sizeable prevalence (5%–30%) of clinically occult thyroid cancer in asymptomatic persons. The rising diagnosis of thyroid cancer has been linked to increasing health care utilization and imaging practices,2–4 which have led to the increased discovery of small papillary thyroid cancers, which generally exhibit indolent behavior.

https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamaotolaryngology/articlepdf/2513194/old160003.pdf

Changing Trends in the Incidence of Thyroid Cancer in the United States.

Obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA) is one of the most common causes of sleep-disordered breathing (SDB) in children. It is associated with significant morbidity, potentially impacting on long-term neurocognitive and behavioural development, as well as cardiovascular outcomes and metabolic homeostasis. The low grade systemic inflammation and increased oxidative stress seen in this condition are believed to underpin the development of these OSA-related morbidities. The significant variance in degree of end organ morbidity in patients with the same severity of OSA highlights the importance of the interplay of genetic and environmental factors in determining the overall OSA phenotype. This review seeks to summarize the current understanding of the aetiology and mechanisms underlying OSA, its risk factors, diagnosis and treatment.

Update on paediatric obstructive sleep apnoea

Purpose This study evaluated the efficacy of oropharyngeal exercises in children with symptoms of obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (OSA) after adenotonsillectomy. Methods Polysomnographic recordings were performed before adenotonsillectomy and 6 months after surgery. Patients with residual OSA (apnea-Hypopnea Index, AHI>1 and persistence of respiratory symptoms) after adenotonsillectomy were randomized either to a group treated with oropharyngeal exercises (group 1) or to a control group (group 2). A morphofunctional evaluation with Glatzel and Rosenthal tests was performed before and after 2 months of exercises. All the subjects were re-evaluated after exercise through polysomnography and clinical evaluation. The improvement in OSAwas defined by ΔAHI: (AHI at T1−AHI at T2)/AHI at T1×100. Results Group 1 was composed of 14 subjects (mean age, 6.01±1.55)whilegroup2wascomposedof13subjects(mean age, 5.76±0.82). The AHI was 16.79±9.34 before adenotonsillectomy and 4.72±3.04 after surgery (p<0.001). The ΔAHI was significantly higher in group 1 (58.01 %; range from 40.51 to 75.51 %) than in group 2 (6.96 %; range from −23.04 to 36.96 %). Morphofunctional evaluation demonstrated a reduction in oral breathing (p=0.002), positive Glatzel test (p<0.05), positive Rosenthal test (p<0.05), and increased labial seal (p<0.001), and lip tone (p<0.05). Conclusions Oropharyngeal exercises may be considered as complementary therapy to adenotonsillectomy to effectively treat pediatric OSA.

Oropharyngeal exercises to reduce symptoms of OSA after AT

Rapid maxillary expansion outcomes in treatment of obstructive sleep apnea in children

Importance Although polysomnographic (PSG) testing is the gold standard for the diagnosis of obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (OSAS) in children, the number of pediatric sleep laboratories is limited. Developing new screening methods for identifying OSAS may reduce the need for PSG testing. Objective To evaluate the combined use of the sleep clinical record (SCR) and nocturnal oximetry testing for predicting PSG results in children with clinically suspected OSAS. Design, Setting, and Participants Prospective study over 10 months. A cohort of 268 consecutive children (mean [SD], age 6 [3] years) referred for clinically suspected OSAS was studied at a pediatric sleep center at a university hospital. Children with disorders other than adenotonsillar hypertrophy or obesity were excluded. Main Outcomes and Measures Mild OSAS (obstructive apnea–hypopnea index [AHI], 1-5 episodes/h) and moderate-to-severe OSAS (AHI, >5 episodes/h) were the main outcome measures. Sleep clinical record scores greater than or equal to6.5 were considered positive, as were McGill oximetry scores (MOS) greater than 1, and these positive scores were the main explanatory variables in our study. Each participant was evaluated by the SCR, followed by pulse oximetry test the first night and PSG test in the sleep laboratory the second night. Results Of the total participants, 236 (88.1%) were diagnosed with OSAS, 236 (88.1%) had a positive SCR score, and 50 (18.7%) had a positive MOS. Participants with positive SCR scores had significantly increased risk of an AHI greater than or equal to 1 (adjusted odds ratio [AOR], 9.3; 95% CI, 3.7-23.2;P  Conclusions and Relevance The combined use of the SCR score and nocturnal oximetry results has moderate success in predicting sleep-disordered breathing severity when PSG testing is not an option.

https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamaotolaryngology/articlepdf/2468492/ooi150080.pdf

Diagnosis of Pediatric Obstructive Sleep Apnea Syndrome in Settings With Limited Resources

Rapid maxillary expansion (RME) is an additional treatment in pediatric obstructive sleep apnea (OSA). The aim of this study was to present data about the outcome of adenotonsillectomy (AT) and of RME in a clinical sample of pediatric OSA. We consecutively enrolled children with OSA to undergo RME or AT. The age and the severity of OSA are the main factors involved in the choice of treatment. A polysomnography was performed at the baseline (i.e., before treatment, T0) and 1 year after treatment (T1). A total of 52 subjects fulfilled the inclusion criteria. Twenty-five children underwent AT (group 1) and 22 children underwent RME (group 2). Five children underwent both treatments (group 3). Children in group 2 were older, had a longer disease duration, a higher body mass index (BMI), a lower apnea–hypopnea index (AHI), and a lower arousal index at T0 than children in group 1. After 1 year, BMI percentile and overnight mean saturation increased in group 1 while AHI and arousal index decreased. In group 2, mean overnight saturation increased while AHI decreased. Children in group 3 displayed a significant decrease in AHI from T0 to T1. Our data demonstrate that both treatments help to improve OSA, and a multidisciplinary approach to treatment is suggested.

Ottavio Vitelli

Papers

Oropharyngeal exercises to reduce symptoms of OSA after AT

Rapid maxillary expansion outcomes in treatment of obstructive sleep apnea in children

Diagnosis of Pediatric Obstructive Sleep Apnea Syndrome in Settings With Limited Resources

Adenotonsillectomy and orthodontic therapy in pediatric obstructive sleep apnea.

Impact of obesity on cognitive outcome in children with sleep-disordered breathing