Canoeing and kayaking are upper-body sports that make varying demands on the body, depending on the type of contest and the distance covered. The shorter events (500 m) are primarily anaerobic (2 minutes of exercise), calling for powerful shoulder muscles with a high proportion of fast-twitch fibres. In contrast, 10,000 m events call for aerobic work to be performed by the arms. Such contestants need a high proportion of slow-twitch fibres, and an ability to develop close to 100% of their leg maximum oxygen intake when paddling. In slalom and whitewater contests, the value of physiological testing is somewhat limited, since performance is strongly influenced by experience and the ability to make precisely judged rapid paddling efforts under considerable emotional stress. Paddlers face dangers from their hostile cold water environment; causes of fatalities (drowning, cardiac arrest, ventricular fibrillation and hypothermia) are briefly reviewed. Medical problems include provision of adequate nutrition and a clean water supply, effects of repeated immersion (softening of the skin, blistering, paronychial infections, sinusitis, otitis), varicose veins (secondary to thoracic fixation) and hazards of exposure to fibreglass and polystyrene in the home workshop. Surgical problems include muscle sprains and mechanical injuries (haemotomas, lacerations, contusions, concussion, and fractures).

Science and Medicine of Canoeing and Kayaking

Six Danish male cross-country skiers were studied during the end-of-summer and winter seasons. Their maximal oxygen uptake was measured while running on a treadmill and using a ski ergometer incorporating the double-poling technique. Maximal oxygen uptake during treadmill running and double-poling was correlated with performance, expressed as a ranking score during 10 ski races. The tests were undertaken in September, December and April. Upper body maximal oxygen uptake increased 5.8% from September to December, decreasing to 2.3% above the September level in April. Upper body work output (2 min at maximal intensity) increased 11.8% from September to December (P less than 0.05). The relationship between upper body and leg maximal oxygen uptake--the upper body/leg ratio--was 89.4% in September. In four skiers, both treadmill and upper body tests were undertaken on each test occasion. The upper body/leg ratio changed from 87.7% in September to 95.7% in December. In April, the ratio was 91.0%. The maximal oxygen uptake measured using the ski ergometer during double-poling was significantly correlated with performance (P less than 0.05). It is concluded that the upper body ski ergometer can be used in the evaluation of elite cross-country skiers.

Evaluation of a specific test in cross-country skiing.

The metabolic cost of paddling at low speeds (v) was measured from oxygen uptake
 
% MathType!MTEF!2!1!+-% feaafiart1ev1aaatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn% hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr% 4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Jf9qqqrpepC0xf9qiW7rqqrFfpeea0xe9LqFf0x% c9q8qqaqFn0dXdir-xcvk9pIe9q8qqaq-xir-f0-yqaqVeLsFr0-vr% 0-vr0xc8meaabaqaciGacaGaaeqabaWaaeaaeaaakeaacaGGOaGabm% OvayaacaWaaSbaaSqaaGqaaiac0X1FpbWaaSbaaWqaaiaa-jdaaeqa% aaWcbeaakiaacMcaaaa!3EF0!

 
$$(\dot V_{O_2 } )$$

 and anaerobic glycolysis in an annular pool or calculated from submaximal
 
% MathType!MTEF!2!1!+-% feaafiart1ev1aaatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn% hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr% 4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Jf9qqqrpepC0xf9qiW7rqqrFfpeea0xe9LqFf0x% c9q8qqaqFn0dXdir-xcvk9pIe9q8qqaq-xir-f0-yqaqVeLsFr0-vr% 0-vr0xc8meaabaqaciGacaGaaeqabaWaaeaaeaaakeaaceWGwbGbai% aadaWgaaWcbaacbaGaiqhx-9eadaWgaaadbaGaa8Nmaaqabaaaleqa% aaaa!3D8D!

 
$$\dot V_{O_2 } $$

 measured at higher speeds when the kayaker was assisted in overcoming water resistance. Also calculated were the total drag (D) and the net mechanical efficiency (e). Each of the above variables was determined in male (n=17) and female (n=7) kayakers ranging in experience from beginners to elite. The
 
% MathType!MTEF!2!1!+-% feaafiart1ev1aaatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn% hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr% 4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Jf9qqqrpepC0xf9qiW7rqqrFfpeea0xe9LqFf0x% c9q8qqaqFn0dXdir-xcvk9pIe9q8qqaq-xir-f0-yqaqVeLsFr0-vr% 0-vr0xc8meaabaqaciGacaGaaeqabaWaaeaaeaaakeaaceWGwbGbai% aadaWgaaWcbaacbaGaiqhx-9eadaWgaaadbaGaa8Nmaaqabaaaleqa% aaaa!3D8D!

 
$$\dot V_{O_2 } $$

 increased withv to a peak of ∼3.4 l·min−1 (80%–100% of peak
 
% MathType!MTEF!2!1!+-% feaafiart1ev1aaatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn% hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr% 4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Jf9qqqrpepC0xf9qiW7rqqrFfpeea0xe9LqFf0x% c9q8qqaqFn0dXdir-xcvk9pIe9q8qqaq-xir-f0-yqaqVeLsFr0-vr% 0-vr0xc8meaabaqaciGacaGaaeqabaWaaeaaeaaakeaaceWGwbGbai% aadaWgaaWcbaacbaGaiqhx-9eadaWgaaadbaGaa8Nmaaqabaaaleqa% aaaa!3D8D!

 
$$\dot V_{O_2 } $$

 during running) in men and of ∼2.8 l·min−1 in women, while at higher speeds the additional energy was accounted for by anaerobic glycolysis. In all subjects the energy cost to paddle a given distance (C) increased according to a power function with increasingv. TheC was lower for the elite male paddlers than for the unskilled group, while that for elite women was slightly less than that for the elite men. Also the rates of increase ofC appeared to be inversely proportional to the subjects' skill. TotalD for elite men increased from ∼15 to 60 N over a range of speeds from 1 to 2.2 m·s−1 while those of unskilled men and skilled women for the same speed range were 10–20 N greater and slightly less, respectively. Thee increased linearly, but at a different rate, with increases inv for the unskilled and the elite kayakers (males and females) being 4.2% and 6%, respectively, atv=1.2 m·s−1.

https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/BF02389808.pdf

Energetics of kayaking.

The differences in cardiorespiratory responses were examined during and after intermittent progressive maximal arm-crank and cycle exercise. Arm-crank exercise was performed in a standing position using no torso restraints to maximize the amount of active skeletal muscle mass. Recovery was followed for 16 min. In the tests a variety of ventilatory gas exchange variables, heart rate, the blood pressure, and the arm venous blood lactate concentration were measured in 21 untrained healthy men aged 24–45 years. At equal submaximal external workloads for arm cranking and cycling (50 and 100 W) the respiratory frequency, tidal volume, pulmonary ventilation, oxygen uptake, carbon dioxide output, the respiratory exchange ratio, heart rate, the arm venous blood lactate concentration, and the ventilatory equivalent for oxygen were higher (P < 0.001) during arm cranking than cycling. The maximal workload for arm cranking was 44% lower than that for cycling (155 ±37 vs 277 ± 39 W, P < 0.001) associated with significantly (P < 0.001) lower maximal tidal volume (-20 %), oxygen uptake (-22 %), carbon dioxide output (-28%), systolic blood pressure (-17%) and oxygen pulse (-22%) but a higher ventilatory equivalent for carbon dioxide (+ 22%) and arm venous blood lactate concentration (+ 37%). However, these responses after arm-crank and cycle exercises behaved almost similarly during recovery. The high cardiorespiratory stress induced by arm work should be taken into account when the work stress and work-rest regimens in actual manual tasks are assessed, and when arm work is used for clinical testing, and in physiotherapy particularly for patients with heart or pulmonary diseases.

Differences in cardiorespiratory responses during and after arm crank and cycle exercise.

Blood lactate accumulation was studied during progressive arm exercise in male and female world class kayak paddlers (K♂, K♀,n=11), weight-/power-lifters (WL/PL,n=6), bodybuilders (BB,n=8) and non-athletes (NA,n=6). The heavy resistance trained athletes exhibited greater upper-body muscle volume than the other subject groups. During low submaximal exercise intensities, blood lactate concentrations were significantly lower both in male and female kayakers compared with WL/PL, BB, and NA. Mean values at 120 W were 1.9 (K♂), 2.1 (K♀), 4.8 (WL/PL), 4.5 (BB), and 5.1 (NA) mmol·l−1. At higher power outputs the difference between females and non-kayakers diminished, while the difference between K♂ and all other groups increased. Exercise tolerance was greatest in K♂ and was equal among the other groups. Our results suggest that factors other than the muscle mass per se involved in exercise are responsible for the blood lactate response during this kind of work. Moreover, the physiological response observed in kayakers probably represents the upper limit of man's ability to perform continuous progressive arm-cranking exercise.

Blood lactate accumulation during arm exercise in world class kayak paddlers and strength trained athletes

Maximal oxygen uptake and circulatory adaptation to work with legs and arms were studied in a group of 5 paddlers members of the Belgian national squad and a control-group of 9 trained subjects. The results showed that the specific armtraining of paddlers induced changes in the arm-to-leg ratio of physiological parameters at submaximal and maximal work. In the group of paddlers maximal oxygen intake and workload during arm-exercise averaged respectively 88.6% and 80.3% of the scores obtained with leg-exercise. In the control group the arm to leg ratio varied between 81.2% and 65.2%. At a submaximal load of 100 W the difference in heartfrequency was 21 beats/min in the canoe group and 35 beats/min in the control group. Oxygen consumption and ventilation during work with the arms was lower in the group of paddlers. The data of our study suggest that the specific training of paddlers do result in a effect on the haemodynamic adaptations to arm work

P. Hoekstra

Papers

Effects of training on maximal working capacity and haemodynamic response during arm and leg-exercise in a group of paddlers.