Lincoln, Yvonna, and Egon Guba, "Postpositivism and the Naturalist Paradigm," pp. 14-46 in Yvonna Lincoln and Egon Guba, Naturalistic Inquiry . Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1985.*

Saturation has attained widespread acceptance as a methodological principle in qualitative research. It is commonly taken to indicate that, on the basis of the data that have been collected or analysed hitherto, further data collection and/or analysis are unnecessary. However, there appears to be uncertainty as to how saturation should be conceptualized, and inconsistencies in its use. In this paper, we look to clarify the nature, purposes and uses of saturation, and in doing so add to theoretical debate on the role of saturation across different methodologies. We identify four distinct approaches to saturation, which differ in terms of the extent to which an inductive or a deductive logic is adopted, and the relative emphasis on data collection, data analysis, and theorizing. We explore the purposes saturation might serve in relation to these different approaches, and the implications for how and when saturation will be sought. In examining these issues, we highlight the uncertain logic underlying saturation—as essentially a predictive statement about the unobserved based on the observed, a judgement that, we argue, results in equivocation, and may in part explain the confusion surrounding its use. We conclude that saturation should be operationalized in a way that is consistent with the research question(s), and the theoretical position and analytic framework adopted, but also that there should be some limit to its scope, so as not to risk saturation losing its coherence and potency if its conceptualization and uses are stretched too widely.

https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2Fs11135-017-0574-8.pdf

Saturation in qualitative research: exploring its conceptualization and operationalization

Failure to reach data saturation has an impact on the quality of the research conducted and hampers content validity. The aim of a study should include what determines when data saturation is achieved, for a small study will reach saturation more rapidly than a larger study. Data saturation is reached when there is enough information to replicate the study when the ability to obtain additional new information has been attained, and when further coding is no longer feasible. The following article critiques two qualitative studies for data saturation: Wolcott (2004) and Landau and Drori (2008). Failure to reach data saturation has a negative impact on the validity on one’s research. The intended audience is novice student researchers. Keywords: Data Saturation, Triangulation, Interviews, Personal Lens, Bias.

/pdf/are-we-there-yet-data-saturation-in-qualitative-research-4ir9y6ucgk.pdf

Are We There Yet? Data Saturation in Qualitative Research

Qualitative Interviewing: The Art of Hearing Data

Saturation is a core guiding principle to determine sample sizes in qualitative research, yet little methodological research exists on parameters that influence saturation. Our study compared two approaches to assessing saturation: code saturation and meaning saturation. We examined sample sizes needed to reach saturation in each approach, what saturation meant, and how to assess saturation. Examining 25 in-depth interviews, we found that code saturation was reached at nine interviews, whereby the range of thematic issues was identified. However, 16 to 24 interviews were needed to reach meaning saturation where we developed a richly textured understanding of issues. Thus, code saturation may indicate when researchers have "heard it all," but meaning saturation is needed to "understand it all." We used our results to develop parameters that influence saturation, which may be used to estimate sample sizes for qualitative research proposals or to document in publications the grounds on which saturation was achieved.

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1049732316665344

Code Saturation Versus Meaning Saturation: How Many Interviews Are Enough?

One approach to promote social change, mitigate bias, and enhance reaching data saturation is through triangulation: multiple sources of data. Triangulation adds depth to the data that are collected. In this scholarly essay, the authors discuss the continuing relevance of Denzin’s approach to triangulation of data. Included is a critique of researchers who have posited other approaches to triangulation that appear to be merely a renaming of Denzin’s original paradigm rather new outcomes. The intended audience is novice researchers and doctoral students who can benefit from clarity on some common misconceptions about triangulation.

/pdf/denzin-s-paradigm-shift-revisiting-triangulation-in-4iwc15fdfi.pdf

Denzin’s Paradigm Shift: Revisiting Triangulation in Qualitative Research

The authors present how to construct a mini-ethnographic case study design with the benefit of an ethnographic approach bounded within a case study protocol that is more feasible for a student researcher with limited time and finances. The novice researcher should choose a design that enables one to best answer the research question. Secondly, one should choose the design that assists the researcher in reaching data saturation. Finally, the novice researcher must choose the design in which one can complete the study within a reasonable time frame with minimal cost. This is particularly important for student researchers. One can blend study designs to be able to use the best of each design that can mitigate the limitations of each as well. The authors are experienced ethnographers who currently chair dissertation committees where a student has chosen a mini-ethnographic case study design. Keywords: Culture, Ethnography, Mini-Ethnography, Case Study Design, Triangulation, Data Saturation One of the most important components of the work is the study design. One can have a well written Problem Statement, conceptual framework, Literature Review, and other subsections; however, as Marshall and Rossman (2016) stated, the researcher should choose the design that has the best chance of answering the research questions. For some, a phenomenological study design may be optimal because of the nature of the participants as well as exploring the lived experiences of others (Marshall & Rossman, 2016). For others, a case study design would be best to identify operational links between events over time (Andrade, 2009; Baxter & Jack, 2008; Yin, 2014). Further, novice researchers might consider ethnography to explore the feelings, beliefs, and meanings of relationships between people as they interact within their culture or as they react to others in response to a changing phenomenon (Fields & Kafai, 2009). The novice researcher should choose a design that enables one to best answer the research question (Fusch & Ness, 2015). Secondly, one should choose the design that assists the researcher in reaching data saturation. Finally, the researcher must choose the design in which one can complete the study within a reasonable time frame with minimal cost. This is particularly important for student researchers. As one considers how to conduct the research, it is best to keep in mind the different designs that will have an impact on the research. Selecting a research topic is much more than deciding what one wants to study. It must also consider how one will conduct the study that takes into account any time, energy, and financial constraints for students in a doctoral program. An appropriate research study design is the path to a well-written scholarly rich doctoral study; hence, the secret to writing an excellent proposal and study. Moreover, the methodology used within the qualitative research paradigm must best address the research problem (Denzin, 2009; Marshall & Rossman, 2016). One purpose of a study is to advance the theory (Imenda, 2014), which can be done through either filling a gap (Vlok, 2012) or confirming already existing evidence (Ayoko & Pekerti, 2008). Advancing the theory then accomplished by an exhaustive literature review, an empirical study to gather the evidence, and then comparing the existing body of knowledge to the study results (Chernyak-Hai & Tziner, 2014; Secomb & Smith, 2011). The overall purpose of any study is this: to answer the research question. Ethnography Qualitative researchers explore how people make sense of their world. A qualitative researcher seeks to define and interpret unclear phenomena through non-numerical methods of measurement that focus on meaning and insight (Kakabadse & Steane, 2010). Exploratory research designs are conducted to clarify ambiguity and discover potential such as new product development (Kurt, Inman, & Argo, 2011) as well as ideas for later research. …

/pdf/how-to-conduct-a-mini-ethnographic-case-study-a-guide-for-464uxb7lla.pdf

How to Conduct a Mini-Ethnographic Case Study: A Guide for Novice Researchers

Conflict between coworkers on the production line can be expensive as well as time consuming for companies. The business problem investigated in the study is the inability of supervisors on the production line to resolve conflict in nonunion companies, which, consequently, may lead to a drop in organizational productivity. Behaviors impacting shop floor productivity and performance were detected through miniethnographic and descriptive case study qualitative research methods through research of the production line leadership in a global company that manufactures kitchen and fireplace accessories. Results obtained from themes demonstrated that the production supervisor had some leader–member exchange leader characteristics including modeling behavior, individualized support of team members, resolving conflict in an appropriate manner that respected company culture and the existence of inner as well as outer circle members. Recommendations for future research included calling for additional empirical studies exploring the relationship between gender, diversity, and leader–member exchange effectiveness.

/pdf/leadership-and-conflict-resolution-on-the-production-line-4du3cu5v4b.pdf

Leadership and Conflict Resolution on the Production Line

Plagiarism is the theft of intellectual property. Plagiarism has been a problem in academic settings and appears to be on the increase, now moving into areas including the medical and scientific fields as well as industry, manufacturing, military, and legal briefs. The ethical implications can have serious consequences for organizations, individuals, and society, resulting in harm being done to others in favor of expediency. In this scholarly essay, the authors explore and discuss the ethical implications of plagiarism and the increase of ghostwriting in a free society through the writings of Kant, Popper, Kostenbaum, Plato, Whedbee, and others. The conclusion is that the act of stealing is not the true crime; rather, it is the act of deception that inflicts moral harm on all parties by damaging the reputation of self and others, insulting others’ intelligence, and harming the integrity of all. The intended audience is students in their first year of a doctoral program.

/pdf/the-ethical-implications-of-plagiarism-and-ghostwriting-in-2xev2wwjgu.pdf

Patricia I Fusch Ph.D.

Papers

Are We There Yet? Data Saturation in Qualitative Research

Denzin’s Paradigm Shift: Revisiting Triangulation in Qualitative Research

How to Conduct a Mini-Ethnographic Case Study: A Guide for Novice Researchers

Leadership and Conflict Resolution on the Production Line

The Ethical Implications of Plagiarism and Ghostwriting in an Open Society