In the last several years there has been an increase in the amount of qualitative research using in-depth interviews and comprehensive content analyses in sport psychology. However, no explicit method has been provided to deal with the large amount of unstructured data. This article provides common guidelines for organizing and interpreting unstructured data. Two main operations are suggested and discussed: first, coding meaningful text segments, or creating tags, and second, regrouping similar text segments, or creating categories. Furthermore, software programs for the microcomputer are presented as a way to facilitate the organization and interpretation of qualitative data.

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Organizing and Interpreting Unstructured Qualitative Data

Contemporary aspects of research methods in sport and exercise psychology are discussed in this wide-ranging review. After an introduction centred on trends in sport and exercise psychology methods, the review is organized around the major themes of quantitative and qualitative research. Our aim is to highlight areas that may be problematic or controversial (e.g. stepwise statistical procedures), underused (e.g. discriminant analysis), increasingly used (e.g. meta-analysis, structural equation modelling, qualitative content analysis) and emergent (e.g. realist tales of writing). Perspectives range from the technical and speculative to the controversial and critical. While deliberately not providing a 'cookbook' approach to research methods, we hope to provide enough material to help researchers to appreciate the diversity of potential methods and to adopt a more critical perspective in their own research consumption and production.

Research methods in sport and exercise psychology: quantitative and qualitative issues

The purpose of the present review was to provide an up-to-date summary of the burnout-in-sport literature. The last published reviews were in 1989 (Fender) and 1990 (Dale & Weinberg). In order to appreciate the status of current knowledge and understanding and to identify potential future directions, the authors conducted a synthesis of published work using a systematic-review methodology. Findings comprised 3 sections: sample characteristics, correlates, and research designs and data collection. A total of 58 published studies were assessed, most of which focused on athletes (n = 27) and coaches (n = 23). Correlates were grouped into psychological, demographic, and situational factors and were summarized as positively, negatively, indeterminate, and nonassociated with burnout. Self-report measures and cross-sectional designs have dominated research. The authors conclude by summarizing the key findings in the literature and highlighting the gaps that could be filled by future research. Burnout in the sport setting was first investigated by Caccese and Mayerberg (1984) in a study of coach burnout. Similar to many concepts in sport psychology, the original conceptualization occurred outside sport, in this case in the work domain. Herbert Freudenberger (1974) is generally considered the founding father with his study on staff burnout among volunteers at a New York drug rehabilitation clinic. Around the same time, however, Christina Maslach, a social-psychology researcher, also began to coin the term to describe a gradual process of exhaustion, cynicism, and reduced commitment among poverty lawyers. Maslach’s work has continued to be instrumental in shaping the development of research in the field, and the more practitioner-based approach established by Freudenberger has forged a second tradition focused on the assessment, prevention, and treatment of the syndrome (Schaufeli & Buunk, 2003). In both the professional and sport settings the concept of burnout has been enormously popular and readily taken up. The media have been instrumental in popularizing the concept through (in the case of sport) sensational accounts of the dramatic demise of high-profile sports stars and the decline of young prodi gies who fail to fulfill their potential. It has become a colloquialism in the sport community and among the wider fan base (Raedeke, 1997; Vealey, Armstrong, Comar, & Greenleaf, 1998). Use of the term burnout also conjures powerful visual

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Burnout in sport: A systematic review

An in-depth investigation into flow state was conducted in order to understand how this optimal state is experienced by elite athletes. Twenty-eight elite-level athletes, representing 7 sports, were interviewed on their perceptions of flow state during performance of their sport. Csikszentmihalyi's (1990) model of the flow state was examined for its applicability to elite athletes. Correspondence was found between the dimensions of flow, as described, by Csikszentmihalyi (1990), and the athletes descriptions of their experience of flow; some dimensions received greater support through the qualitative analysis of the athletes' descriptions than did other dimensions. Those dimensions of flow most represented across the group's data were the autotelic experience of flow, total concentration on the task at hand, merging of action and awareness, and the paradox of control. The analyses provided a detailed, sport-specific picture of flow state in elite athletes.

Toward a Conceptual Understanding of the Flow Experience in Elite Athletes

A qualitative investigation into the flow experiences of elite figure skaters was conducted in order to gain greater insight into the nature of flow in sport. Sixteen former US National Champion Figure Skaters, who held their titles between 1985–1990, were interviewed on an optimal skating experience, and then questioned extensively about factors associated with achieving optimal, or flow states, during performance. Factors perceived as most important for getting into flow included a positive mental attitude, positive pre-competitive and competitive affect, maintaining appropriate focus, physical readiness, and for some pairsldance skaters, unity with partner. Those factors which were perceived to prevent or disrupt flow included physical problems/mistakes, an inability to maintain focus, a negative mental attitude, and lack of audience response. The skaters placed very high value on Row-like states, and their descriptions of what was occurring during optimal skating experiences paralleled many o...

Athletes in flow: A qualitative investigation of flow states in elite figure skaters

A qualitative study investigated the psychological characteristics of peak performance in golf. Nineteen professional and collegiate golfers (ages (19–38) participated in structured open-ended interviews. A content analysis of the interviews revealed that certain psychological qualities of peak performance exist among golfers. During peak performance the golfers were highly focused and immersed in the task at hand, performed effortlessly and automatically, felt physically relaxed and mentally calm, and felt in control of themselves and their performance. In addition, the golfers had no fear of negative consequences, maintained high self-confidence, and experienced fun and enjoyment. These results corroborate other studies examining peak performance with athletes in different sports. The results are discussed and suggestions are made for striving toward a unique and superior mental state.

An Exploratory Study on Peak Performance in Golf

This was an exploratory study to determine the most frequent sources of stress reported by high school golfers and also to ascertain the perceived causes of athlete burnout in golf. A guided interview approach consisting of both open-ended and specific questions related to golfing experiences was used to collect data from 10 high school competitive golfers. A typological analysis of the interviews identified a number of competitive sources of stress for golfers, including playing a particularly difficult shot, playing up to personal standards, and striving to meet parental expectations. All golfers said they had experienced a short period of burnout. Some of the most frequently cited reasons for burnout in golf were, too much practice or play, a lack of enjoyment, and too much pressure from self and others to do well. It was concluded that the perceived sources of stress need to be considered when investigating the causes of athlete burnout in golf.

An Exploratory Study on Sources of Stress and Athlete Burnout in Youth Golf

The purpose of this review is to discuss the theoretical and empirical support for the use of cognitive behavioral preperformance routines in sport and also to provide suggestions for the practitioner in developing and structuring cognitive and behavioral preparatory routines given the nature of the task and personal preferences. The first section discusses the underlying theoretical assumptions supporting the use of preperformance routines. The second section elaborates on empirical research that has been conducted on cognitive behavioral interventions and preperformance routines in sport. The final section details the practical implications of routines based upon theories and research in the area and provides recommendations for developing and teaching preperformance routines to athletes.

Preperformance Routines in Sport: Theoretical Support and Practical Applications

The effects of a cognitive-behavioral intervention on adherence to preshot routines of elite collegiate golfers was evaluated using a multiple baseline (across subjects) design. Three male golfers served as subjects for the assessment of percent of mental and behavioral preshot routines completed for nine holes during baseline and treatment conditions. Players’ shots and putts were videotaped and the tapes were scored to determine the percent of behavioral routines completed. Mental routines were assessed after each round via interview format. In addition, the number of strokes, putts, fairways hit from tee, and greens hit in regulation play for nine holes were also counted. The intervention taught each golfer how to consistently align to the target, make a good decision on each shot, and be totally committed to each shot. It was effective in improving players’ adherence to both mental and behavioral preshot routines. Immediate improvements in performance did not occur. Post-treatment interviews showed th...

Patrick J. Cohn

Papers

An Exploratory Study on Peak Performance in Golf

An Exploratory Study on Sources of Stress and Athlete Burnout in Youth Golf

Preperformance Routines in Sport: Theoretical Support and Practical Applications

Effects of a Cognitive-Behavioral Intervention on the Preshot Routine and Performance in Golf