Showing papers in "Sport Psychologist in 1990"
TL;DR: The use of imagery by athletes was assessed by administering a 37-item questionnaire to a sample of 381 male and female participants from six sports: football, ice hockey, soccer, squash, gymnastics, and figure skating as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: The use of imagery by athletes was assessed by administering a 37-item questionnaire to a sample of 381 male and female participants from six sports. The sample comprised competitors in the sports of football, ice hockey, soccer, squash, gymnastics, and figure skating. Athletes reported using imagery more in conjunction with competition than with practice. The motivational function of imagery was found to be important, but no substantial differences were evident between how athletes employ visual and kinesthetic imagery or how they use internal and external imagery perspectives. Athletes also indicated that they do not have very structured or regular imagery sessions. The level at which athletes were competing (recreational/house league, local competitive, provincial competitive, national/international competitive) was found to influence imagery use. The higher the competitive level, the more often the athletes reported using imagery in practice, in competition, and before an event.
229 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined the affective response pattern of severely injured athletes and found that affect significantly changed (p<.05) across the 4-week period, with the change occurring in a two-stage process: Stage 1, Times 1−2; Stage 2, Times 3−8.
Abstract: This study examined the affective response pattern of severely injured athletes. Five athletes from an NCAA Division I university athletic program were followed within 24 hours of injury for 4 weeks. On two nonconsecutive days a week at the same time and place, the athletes completed the Profile of Mood States and indicated their perceived percent rehabilitation. In addition, at the first meeting the athletes were given the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale and a demographic data sheet. At the final meeting the athletes completed an open-ended questionnaire designed to explore affective, cognitive, and behavioral reflections about rehabilitation. ANOVA indicated that affect significantly changed (p<.05) across the 4 week period. Post hoc analyses indicated that this change fits a two-stage process: Stage 1, Times 1−2; Stage 2, Times 3−8, with the two stages being significantly different from each other. The correlation between perceived rehabilitation and total mood disturbance was r=−.69, p<.0001....
137 citations
TL;DR: The most frequent sources of stress reported by high school golfers and also the perceived causes of athlete burnout in golf were, too much practice or play, a lack of enjoyment, and too much pressure from self and others to do well as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: This was an exploratory study to determine the most frequent sources of stress reported by high school golfers and also to ascertain the perceived causes of athlete burnout in golf. A guided interview approach consisting of both open-ended and specific questions related to golfing experiences was used to collect data from 10 high school competitive golfers. A typological analysis of the interviews identified a number of competitive sources of stress for golfers, including playing a particularly difficult shot, playing up to personal standards, and striving to meet parental expectations. All golfers said they had experienced a short period of burnout. Some of the most frequently cited reasons for burnout in golf were, too much practice or play, a lack of enjoyment, and too much pressure from self and others to do well. It was concluded that the perceived sources of stress need to be considered when investigating the causes of athlete burnout in golf.
136 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors discuss the theoretical and empirical support for the use of cognitive behavioral preperformance routines in sport and also provide suggestions for the practitioner in developing and structuring cognitive and behavioral preparatory routines given the nature of the task and personal preferences.
Abstract: The purpose of this review is to discuss the theoretical and empirical support for the use of cognitive behavioral preperformance routines in sport and also to provide suggestions for the practitioner in developing and structuring cognitive and behavioral preparatory routines given the nature of the task and personal preferences. The first section discusses the underlying theoretical assumptions supporting the use of preperformance routines. The second section elaborates on empirical research that has been conducted on cognitive behavioral interventions and preperformance routines in sport. The final section details the practical implications of routines based upon theories and research in the area and provides recommendations for developing and teaching preperformance routines to athletes.
103 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined situational antecedents of multidimensional competitive state anxiety and self-confidence in a sample of 125 elite intercollegiate middle-distance runners.
Abstract: This study examined situational antecedents of multidimensional competitive state anxiety and self-confidence in a sample of 125 elite intercollegiate middle-distance runners. Cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety, and self-confidence were measured 1 hour prior to performance via the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory–2. Subjects also completed the 19-item Pre-Race Questionnaire (PRQ) which was designed to examine situational antecedents of the competitive state anxiety components. Factor analysis of the PRQ revealed five factors: perceived readiness, attitude toward previous performance, position goal, coach influence, and external environment. Stepwise multiple regression analyses demonstrated that cognitive anxiety was predicted by the first three of these factors. However, none of the factors were found to significantly predict somatic anxiety. Self-confidence was also predicted by two factors, perceived readiness and external environment. These findings suggest that cognitive anxiety and self-confidenc...
101 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the effects of cognitive-behavioral intervention on adherence to preshot routines of elite collegiate golfers were evaluated using a multiple baseline (across subjects) design using three male golfers served as subjects for the assessment of percent of mental and behavioral preshot routine completed for nine holes during baseline and treatment conditions.
Abstract: The effects of a cognitive-behavioral intervention on adherence to preshot routines of elite collegiate golfers was evaluated using a multiple baseline (across subjects) design. Three male golfers served as subjects for the assessment of percent of mental and behavioral preshot routines completed for nine holes during baseline and treatment conditions. Players’ shots and putts were videotaped and the tapes were scored to determine the percent of behavioral routines completed. Mental routines were assessed after each round via interview format. In addition, the number of strokes, putts, fairways hit from tee, and greens hit in regulation play for nine holes were also counted. The intervention taught each golfer how to consistently align to the target, make a good decision on each shot, and be totally committed to each shot. It was effective in improving players’ adherence to both mental and behavioral preshot routines. Immediate improvements in performance did not occur. Post-treatment interviews showed th...
99 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors described the process of getting involved in professional hockey and the importance of obtaining ample consulting experience before working with professional athletes is discussed, and the development of trust and confidence in the player/consultant relationship is seen as the key to effective sport psychology consulting.
Abstract: This article relates experiences and knowledge gained in providing sport psychology consulting services to professional hockey teams over a 6-year period. The process of getting involved in professional hockey is described and the importance of obtaining ample consulting experience before working with professional athletes is discussed. Philosophical and organizational components of service delivery are presented along with the range and type of service provided. The development of trust and confidence in the player/consultant relationship is seen as the key to effective sport psychology consulting. Also, the importance of being able to read situations, fit into the professional sports environment, and adopt a low-key, behind-the-scenes approach is discussed.
94 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a study was conducted to determine if response selection accuracy could be improved without sacrificing a football linebacker's response selection speed by practicing his response selection skills in relation to various offensive plays that were seen via a videotape from a viewing angle similar to what he would see in a game.
Abstract: This study was undertaken to determine if response selection accuracy could be improved without sacrificing a football linebacker’s response selection speed by practicing his response selection skills in relation to various offensive plays that were seen via a videotape from a viewing angle similar to what he would see in a game. The task required the linebacker to respond to the cues of the tight end and backfield play by manipulating a joystick as accurately and quickly as possible. The data revealed that there was an improvement in response selection accuracy without sacrificing response selection speed. This finding was interpreted as evidence that training using a video-tape that displays a view of plays that is similar to what is seen in a game situation can be an effective method for improving the perceptual skills needed for response selection accuracy by a linebacker in a laboratory setting.
63 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the development of mental skills training for professional baseball players and coaches is discussed, where the basic educational model involves providing information, skills practice, and support for the athlete who wants to improve his mental game.
Abstract: This article discusses the development of mental skills training for professional baseball players and coaches. The basic educational model involves providing information, skills practice, and support for the athlete who wants to improve his mental game. The basic philosophy employed is an experiential process that facilitates the athlete’s understanding of mental skills training. Over time, skills are refined and adapted to meet the athlete’s unique needs. The practicing sportpsych consultant must follow a number of operating standards to ensure the trust and respect of both players and management. The most difficult step is getting the commitment from a professional team. This article discusses an approach to making contact, guidelines followed for developing a mental training program for a professional baseball team, and some technical aspects to consider in developing a mental training program. It focuses on the range of services provided to players and coaches in group formats and on an individual ba...
61 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examined athletes' responses to a psychological skills training program spanning a 3-month period and found that the educational program was effective in changing the athletes' knowledge, perceived importance, and use of the four psychological skills.
Abstract: The present investigation examined athletes’ responses to a psychological skills training program spanning a 3-month period. Two studies were conducted to evaluate the degree to which a week-long psychological skills training program changed elite wrestlers’ knowledge, perceived importance, and use of relaxation, visualization/imagery, goal setting, and mental preparation techniques. In Study 1, 18 senior elite wrestlers ranging from 17 to 32 years of age participated in a week-long training camp involving a psychological skills training program and completed assessments immediately before and after camp and again 3 months later. Study 2 was identical to Study 1 except that 33 elite junior wrestlers, ages 14 to 18, were studied. Overall, the results demonstrate that the educational program was effective in changing the athletes’ knowledge, perceived importance, and use of the four psychological skills. MANOVA procedures revealed that the relaxation and visualization/imagery portions of the program were pa...
52 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors describe the features and characteristics of a 3-year involvement of SportPsych consulting in professional hockey from 1987 to 1990, focusing on a 2-year development program with the Chicago Blackhawks.
Abstract: This article describes the features and characteristics of a 3-year involvement of SportPsych consulting in professional hockey from 1987 to 1990. Primarily discussion revolves around a 2-year development program with the Chicago Blackhawks. The components of an educational interdisciplinary philosophy of mental skills development and application are outlined and some of the challenges involved in professional team sport are discussed. The range of services described includes involvement in training camp, game preparation, individual development, subgroup work, team meetings, staff development, family support, minor pro development, playoffs, off-season programming, and scouting. The importance of a primary responsibility to players is pointed out, along with some of the advantages and disadvantages of a part-time role. Discussion covers some of the challenges faced and the potential effectiveness of various interventions and services.
TL;DR: In this paper, a videotaping feedback package was developed for improving skills of youth competitive swimmers, which was used for improving freestyle and backstroke racing turns of young competitive athletes.
Abstract: A videotaping feedback package was developed for improving skills of youth competitive swimmers. Experiment 1 examined the videotaping package for improving freestyle and backstroke racing turns of young competitive swimmers. Positive results were obtained in a multiple-baseline design across subjects. Experiment 2 compared the videotaping feedback package to a group videotaping procedure (that the coach had been using at the time of this research) for improving freestyle swimming strokes of young competitive swimmers. The videotaping feedback package was effective whereas the group videotaping procedure had little or no effect. For most subjects in the two studies, improvements were maintained with minimal prompting and feedback under normal practice conditions. Suggestions for future research are discussed.
TL;DR: In this article, a multidimensional scaling analysis was used to investigate the psychological structure underlying college students' perceptions of 12 practitioners: sport psychologist, clinical psychologist, psychotherapist, coach, psychiatrist, counselor, performance consultant, nutritionist, sports medicine specialist, strength coach, hypnotist, and technical equipment advisor.
Abstract: A multidimensional scaling analysis was used to investigate the psychological structure underlying college students’ perceptions of 12 practitioners: sport psychologist, clinical psychologist, psychotherapist, coach, psychiatrist, counselor, performance consultant, nutritionist, sports medicine specialist, strength coach, hypnotist, and technical equipment advisor. For this analysis, 200 male and female undergraduates completed 66 scales rating the psychological similarity between all possible pairs of the 12 practitioners. The R2 of .84 and stress value of .17 indicated that a two-dimensional solution was the best fit for the similarity ratings. The first dimension was identified as separating practitioners specializing in the mental aspects of performance from those specializing in the physical aspects of performance. The second dimension separated sport practitioners from nonsport practitioners. Interestingly, subjects perceived sport psychologists as being concerned with mental, nonsport issues. The r...
TL;DR: In this article, the authors describe the design, implementation, and evaluation of a mental skills training program for a professional cricket team, and present a model of elite cricketer development.
Abstract: This article describes the design, implementation, and evaluation of a mental skills training program for a professional cricket team. Formally initiated in 1987, the educational philosophy and style of operation of this program has evolved to accommodate three other younger representative teams—students from a local cricket academy—in addition to the unique requirements of senior professionals in the state team. A mental skills workbook represents a key resource to the professional team in a service that remains strictly optional. A model of elite cricketer development is presented, and six key mental skill areas are described together with four groups of recurring problems. Good one-on-one skills, a flexible nonacademic style, and good observational abilities have helped to facilitate effective consulting. In addition, regular evaluation by athletes and an excellent working relationship with an enlightened coach has been critical to both program design and implementation.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors conducted an exploratory study to ascertain the feelings of black male intercollegiate (Division I) football athletes about racial issues of personal concern as a sport participant.
Abstract: The purpose of this exploratory study was to ascertain the feelings of black male intercollegiate (Division I) football athletes about racial issues of personal concern as a sport participant. Twenty-six black football players volunteered to participate in the study. Through a structured interview technique, areas that were investigated included the players’ interaction with the (white) head coach, unique behavioral styles and needs of black versus white athletes, the extent to which these needs were recognized and met, and the effect of their sport environment on skilled performance. The subjects reported a general lack of sensitivity on the part of coaches to individual and sociocultural needs of black players. In particular, receiving negative feedback, a paucity of communication in general, and the lack of honesty and trust were the areas about which the subjects felt most strongly. Blacks unequivocally perceived a sense of unfairness, racism, and a general lack of psychological support by white coach...
TL;DR: In this article, the authors demonstrate the independence of the TAIS scales and make suggestions for avoiding the methodological and interpretive problems that have permeated the literature, which can be used to avoid the methodological flaws and to draw inappropriate conclusions from their analyses.
Abstract: Over the past 15 years the Test of Attentional and Interpersonal Style (TAIS) has become increasingly popular in the sport psychology area. More recently, investigators factor-analyzing the six TAIS attentional scales and the information processing scale have raised serious questions about the independence of these measures. Specifically, they have suggested that the six attentional scales measured by the TAIS can be collapsed into two scales, one reflecting scanning (BET, BIT, INFP) and one reflecting the focusing of attention (NAR, OET, OIT). All of the studies reported on can be shown to have methodological flaws and to have drawn inappropriate conclusions from their analyses. Evidence is provided in the paper demonstrating the independence of the TAIS scales. Suggestions are made for avoiding the methodological and interpretive problems that have permeated the literature.
TL;DR: A psychological skills training program developed for the Houston Astros minor league player development program was described in this article, which represents a mode of consultation that includes the training and supervising of an appropriate professional within the organization who delivers the actual training to the athletes.
Abstract: This article describes a psychological skills training program developed for the Houston Astros’ minor league player development program. It represents a mode of consultation that includes the training and supervising of an appropriate professional within the organization who delivers the actual training to the athletes. The goal is to provide a quality and continuity of services that would be difficult to accomplish using the traditional outside consultant model. Issues and problems that arose in the implementation of the program are discussed, and data derived from an evaluation of the program are presented.
TL;DR: In this article, the effects of attentional focus on race walking performance were examined and the results indicated that the focus on cadence was superior to both the external focus and a focus on stride length.
Abstract: This study examined the effects of attentional focus on race walking performance. Sixteen experienced race walkers, eight males and eight females, were randomly assigned to walk four separate half-mile segments on a quarter-mile track under specific sets of instructions. Two sets of instructions were externally oriented and two were internally oriented. The internally oriented instructions included a set asking the subjects to focus on cadence (the number of steps taken in a designated period of time) and a set asking them to focus on stride length (the distance covered in a single step). The externally oriented instructions asked subjects to use a dissociative strategy. Although no overall difference was found between internal and external focus, results indicated that the focus on cadence was superior to both the external focus, p<.05, and a focus on stride length, p<.05. No significant differences between the stride length focus and the external focus were found. These results are discussed in terms of...
TL;DR: In this article, a philosophy for sport psychology consulting that emphasizes a belief in helping people's dreams come true, believing in possibilities, trusting in ability and talent, and the awesome power of the mind if the mind is properly directed is presented.
Abstract: This paper presents a philosophy for sport psychology consulting that emphasizes a belief in helping people’s dreams come true, believing in possibilities, trusting in ability and talent, and the awesome power of the mind if the mind is properly directed. Particular attention is focused on learning how to resist socialization in order to do one’s best. A brief introduction of strategies for doing so and how such ideals may be delivered is presented.
TL;DR: In this article, personal experiences in building a career in sport psychology and providing consulting services to professional tennis players are explored, and the importance of training and competence in all sport sciences are emphasized.
Abstract: This paper explores personal experiences in building a career in sport psychology and providing consulting services to professional tennis players. It describes the range of services provided, major client groups, and philosophy of service delivery. It reviews the overall training model used in service delivery as well as psychological assessment procedures used in consultation. It also describes how professional services were organized, type of services provided to specific client groups, and specific training components. Factors and issues influencing professional effectiveness and competence are explored. The importance of training and competence in all sport sciences are emphasized. The challenges and hardships encountered in building a successful career in this specialty are reviewed. The need for more effective and responsible applied technology and research is discussed.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors describe the delivery of personal and performance enhancement consulting services to the major league and minor league teams in the Oakland Athletics baseball organization over a 6-year period.
Abstract: This article describes the delivery of personal and performance enhancement consulting services to the major league and minor league teams in the Oakland Athletics baseball organization over a 6-year period. The use of a combined clinical, educational approach is discussed as well as the range and type of services provided in the role as a full-time instructor/counselor. Factors affecting the effectiveness of delivering sport psychology services to professional baseball players are discussed, with special emphasis on developing trust and a good connection in the player/consultant relationship.
TL;DR: In this paper, a model of providing a specialized employee assistance program, with psychological services that are far-reaching and beyond what traditional employee assistance programs offer, is discussed, including working with the athletes to improve their sports performance using various mental skills techniques, providing personal counseling, and impacting the organization at an organizational level.
Abstract: This paper discusses a model of providing a specialized employee assistance program, with psychological services that are far-reaching and beyond what traditional employee assistance programs offer. Three main areas in which services are deemed especially critical include working with the athletes to improve their sports performance using various mental skills techniques, providing personal counseling, and impacting the organization at an organizational level. Also discussed is the author’s current role with the team and management, both during the preseason and the official season. Further, the author evaluates his effectiveness as a sport psychology consultant and the problems encountered as well as the importance of developing and maintaining proper boundaries within the organization. In conclusion, issues related to the goodness of fit between the professional sport organization and the sport psychology consultant are addressed.
TL;DR: In this article, a 4 × 5 ANOVA with repeated measures on the last factor revealed a significant goal condition main effect, with the long-term goal group improving more than the do-your-best group.
Abstract: The purpose of this investigation was twofold: to determine if individuals who were assigned specific, difficult goals perform better than those assigned “do your best” goals, and to examine the importance of goal proximity (longterm vs. short-term) on bowling performance. Subjects were 72 students enrolled in two beginning bowling courses at a 4-year university. They were matched according to baseline bowling averages and then randomly assigned to one of four goal-setting conditions. A 4 × 5 (Goal Condition × Trials) ANOVA with repeated measures on the last factor revealed a significant goal condition main effect, with the long-term goal group improving more than the do-your-best group. No other performance comparisons reached significance. Questionnaire data revealed that subjects in all three numerical goal conditions rated their level of confidence significantly higher than the do-your-best goal group in Week 1, but the long-term goal group displayed a significantly higher level of confidence than the...
TL;DR: In this article, sport psychology appears to be positively perceived by the current respondents, and there is little evidence of an impending turf war between psychology and physical education over who will control the field.
Abstract: Departmental chairpersons of American Psychological Association-approved clinical psychology programs responded to a questionnaire concerned with selected aspects of sport psychology. Of 147 chairs, 102 (69.4%) returned the instrument. The nine questions comprising the instrument were aimed at assessing the current perception of and future predictions for sport psychology. Data analysis is supportive of the viability of sport psychology but also indicates that it is not a major curricular component in selected psychology departments at the present time. Sport psychology appears to be positively perceived by the current respondents, and there is little evidence of an impending turf war between psychology and physical education over who will control the field. However, the use of the term sport psychologist is seen as contentious in view of state/provincial licensing laws, but no clear-cut answer to credentialing is foreseen.
TL;DR: In this paper, the ethical issues confronting a sport psychologist electing to work with participants in boxing, in part in response to a position taken by the Council of Representatives of the American Psychological Association, are addressed.
Abstract: This paper addresses the ethical issues confronting a sport psychologist electing to work with participants in boxing, in part in response to a position taken by the Council of Representatives of the American Psychological Association. Relevant issues for working with participants in other sports are discussed as well. The impacts of the interventions on the individual worked with, as well as on opponents, are considered in light of potential ethical dilemmas.
TL;DR: The education and training process of sport psychologists has been, for the most part, an unplanned process as discussed by the authors, and the divisions within the field are explored along with the attempts by national bodies to systematize the standards and qualifications necessary for sport psychologists.
Abstract: The education and training process of sport psychologists has been, for the most part, an unplanned process. The divisions within the field are explored along with the attempts by national bodies to systematize the standards and qualifications necessary for sport psychologists. Educational opportunities tend to be hybrid versions of programs in physical education combined with counseling or clinical psychology. Within these programs, it is not unusual to find few faculty who emphasize sport psychology as a primary area. Potential training models are explored and suggestions are made for programs seeking to develop a sport psychology component.
TL;DR: A sport-specific version of Nideffer's (1976a) Test of Attentional and Interpersonal Style (TAIS) specifically in regard to the sport of basketball was developed and validated by.
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to develop and validate a sport-specific version of Nideffer’s (1976a) Test of Attentional and Interpersonal Style (TAIS), specifically in regard to the sport of basketball. Collegiate basketball players (N = 43) participated in the research, 20 males and 23 females. The subjects were administered two instruments, the original TAIS and the Basketball Concentration Survey (BCS). The items contained in the BCS were a conversion of the 59 pertinent items contained in the original. The instruments were administered early in the season and the results were correlated with nine seasonal performance variables ranging from field-goal percentage to total number of steals. The results show the BCS to have significant reliability as well as significantly accounting for performance variability. The BCS had highly significant correlations with seven of the nine performance variables.