The Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) field presents not only a landscape of theories but also a proliferation of approaches, which are controversial, complex and unclear. This article tries to clarify the sit- uation, ''mapping the territory'' by classifying the main CSR theories and related approaches in four groups: (1) instrumental theories, in which the corporation is seen as only an instrument for wealth creation, and its social activities are only a means to achieve economic results; (2) political theories, which concern themselves with the power of corporations in society and a responsible use of this power in the political arena; (3) integrative theories, in which the corporation is focused on the satisfaction of social demands; and (4) ethical theories, based on ethical responsibilities of corporations to society. In practice, each CSR theory presents four dimensions related to profits, political performance, social demands and ethical values. The findings suggest the necessity to develop a new theory on the business and society relationship, which should integrate these four dimensions.

Corporate Social Responsibility Theories: Mapping the Territory

Amartya Sen has made a major contribution to the theory of social justice, and of gender justice, by arguing that capabilities are the relevant space of comparison when justice-related issues are considered. This article supports Sen's idea, arguing that capabilities supply guidance superior to that of utility and resources (the view's familiar opponents), but also to that of the social contract tradition, and at least some accounts of human rights. But I argue that capabilities can help us to construct a normative conception of social justice, with critical potential for gender issues, only if we specify a definite set of capabilities as the most important ones to protect. Sen's "perspective of freedom" is too vague. Some freedoms limit others; some freedoms are important, some trivial, some good, and some positively bad. Before the approach can offer a valuable normative gender perspective, we must make commitments about substance.

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Capabilities as fundamental entitlements: Sen and social justice

Anarchy, state, and utopia

Language, Thought, and Other Biological Categories

Economic choice is the behaviour observed when individuals select one among many available options. There is no intrinsically 'correct' answer: economic choice depends on subjective preferences. This behaviour is traditionally the object of economic analysis and is also of primary interest in psychology. However, the underlying mental processes and neuronal mechanisms are not well understood. Theories of human and animal choice have a cornerstone in the concept of 'value'. Consider, for example, a monkey offered one raisin versus one piece of apple: behavioural evidence suggests that the animal chooses by assigning values to the two options. But where and how values are represented in the brain is unclear. Here we show that, during economic choice, neurons in the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) encode the value of offered and chosen goods. Notably, OFC neurons encode value independently of visuospatial factors and motor responses. If a monkey chooses between A and B, neurons in the OFC encode the value of the two goods independently of whether A is presented on the right and B on the left, or vice versa. This trait distinguishes the OFC from other brain areas in which value modulates activity related to sensory or motor processes. Our results have broad implications for possible psychological models, suggesting that economic choice is essentially choice between goods rather than choice between actions. In this framework, neurons in the OFC seem to be a good candidate network for value assignment underlying economic choice.

Neurons in the orbitofrontal cortex encode economic value

Value in Ethics and Economics

The philosophical literature on simulations has increased dramatically during the past 40 years. Many of its main topics are epistemological. For example, philosophers consider how the results of simulations help explain natural phenomena. This essayâs review treats mainly simulations in the social sciences. It considers the nature of simulations, the varieties of simulation, and uses of simulations for representation, prediction, explanation, and policy decisions. Being oriented toward philosophy of science, it compares simulations to models and experiments and considers whether simulations raise new methodological issues.The essay concludes that several features of simulations set them apart from models and experiments and make them novel scientific tools, whose powers and limits are not yet well understood.

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The Philosophy and Epistemology of Simulation: A Review

Within traditional decision theory, common decision principles - e.g. the principle to maximize utility - generally invoke idealization; they govern ideal agents in ideal circumstances. In Realistic Decision Theory, Paul Weirch adds practicality to decision theory by formulating principles applying to nonideal agents in nonideal circumstances, such as real people coping with complex decisions. Bridging the gap between normative demands and psychological resources, Realistic Decision Theory is essential reading for theorists seeking precise normative decision principles that acknowledge the limits and difficulties of human decision-making.

Realistic Decision Theory: Rules for Nonideal Agents in Nonideal Circumstances

Tradition takes knowledge to be true, justified belief. Accordingly, any theory of knowledge needs a supplementary theory of belief. It should say what belief is, and especially what features of a belief determine whether the belief is true and justified. Epistemology does not have its own account of belief, but draws on interested branches of philosophy. I present their views and the implications for epistemology. The first section provides general orientation. The next three sections explore belief as viewed by philosophy of language, logic, and philosophy of mind. The section following these considers whether epistemology gains by introducing an attitude of acceptance to supplement or replace ordinary belief. The final section draws conclusions for epistemology.

Belief and Acceptance

List of figures Preface 1. Objectives and methods 2. Intrinsic utility analysis 3. Expected utility analysis 4. Expected utility's promotion 5. Two-dimensional utility analysis 6. Group utility analysis 7. Application to trustee decisions 8. Power and versatility Appendix: consistency of calculations of utilities References Index.

Paul Weirich

Papers

Value in Ethics and Economics

The Philosophy and Epistemology of Simulation: A Review

Realistic Decision Theory: Rules for Nonideal Agents in Nonideal Circumstances

Belief and Acceptance

Decision Space: Multidimensional Utility Analysis