Content analysis is a widely used qualitative research technique. Rather than being a single method, current applications of content analysis show three distinct approaches: conventional, directed, or summative. All three approaches are used to interpret meaning from the content of text data and, hence, adhere to the naturalistic paradigm. The major differences among the approaches are coding schemes, origins of codes, and threats to trustworthiness. In conventional content analysis, coding categories are derived directly from the text data. With a directed approach, analysis starts with a theory or relevant research findings as guidance for initial codes. A summative content analysis involves counting and comparisons, usually of keywords or content, followed by the interpretation of the underlying context. The authors delineate analytic procedures specific to each approach and techniques addressing trustworthiness with hypothetical examples drawn from the area of end-of-life care.

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Three Approaches to Qualitative Content Analysis

Aim This paper is a description of inductive and deductive content analysis. Background Content analysis is a method that may be used with either qualitative or quantitative data and in an inductive or deductive way. Qualitative content analysis is commonly used in nursing studies but little has been published on the analysis process and many research books generally only provide a short description of this method. Discussion When using content analysis, the aim was to build a model to describe the phenomenon in a conceptual form. Both inductive and deductive analysis processes are represented as three main phases: preparation, organizing and reporting. The preparation phase is similar in both approaches. The concepts are derived from the data in inductive content analysis. Deductive content analysis is used when the structure of analysis is operationalized on the basis of previous knowledge. Conclusion Inductive content analysis is used in cases where there are no previous studies dealing with the phenomenon or when it is fragmented. A deductive approach is useful if the general aim was to test a previous theory in a different situation or to compare categories at different time periods.

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The qualitative content analysis process

Despite a growing interest in qualitative research in occupational therapy, little attention has been placed on establishing its rigor. This article presents one model that can be used for the assessment of trustworthiness or merit of qualitative inquiry. Guba's (1981) model describes four general criteria for evaluation of research and then defines each from both a quantitative and a qualitative perspective. Several strategies for the achievement of rigor in qualitative research useful for both researchers and consumers of research are described.

Rigor in qualitative research: the assessment of trustworthiness.

Social entrepreneurship, as a practice and a field for scholarly investigation, provides a unique opportunity to challenge, question, and rethink concepts and assumptions from different fields of management and business research. This paper puts forward a view of social entrepreneurship as a process that catalyzes social change and/or addresses important social needs in a way that is not dominated by direct financial benefits for the entrepreneurs. Social entrepreneurship is seen as differing from other forms of entrepreneurship in the relatively higher priority given to promoting social value and development versus capturing economic value. To stimulate future research the authors introduce the concept of embeddedness as a nexus between theoretical perspectives for the study of social entrepreneurship. Different research methodologies and their implications are discussed.

https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/Delivery.cfm/SSRN_ID984426_code361123.pdf?abstractid=673446&mirid=1&type=2

Social Entrepreneurship Reserach: a Source of Explanation, Prediction and Delight

A method of analysing interview transcripts in qualitative research.

The Purpose of Qualitative Research Qualitative Approaches An Overview Principles of Conceptualizing a Qualitative Project Principles of Doing Research Principles of Data Collection Principles of Data Analysis Qualitative Approaches Reporting Qualitative Research

Qualitative Research Methods for Health Professionals

Part 1 The purpose of qualitative research: the role of theory levels of theory types of theory evaluating theory qualitative research quantitative research selecting an approach methodological threats to validity thinking qualitatively the power of qualitative inquiry. Part 2 An overview of qualitative methods: research approaches to studying everyday experiences selecting a method. Part 3 Principles of conceptualizing a qualitative project: the qualitative proposal evaluating proposals selecting equipment informed consent - special considerations anticipating dilemmas in data collection. Part 4 Principles of doing research: gaining experience beginning data collection principles of data collection principles of sampling the ongoing nature of consent data storage withdrawing from the setting. Part 5 Principles of data collection: interviews principles of interview techniques written methods of data collection observational techniques fieldnotes additional methods of data collection. Part 6 Principles of data analysis: the process of analysis data preparation methods of coding data management techniques types of analysis classification systems atypical cases issues in qualitative research procedures of verification issues of rigour. Part 7 Qualitative approaches: phenomenology ethnography grounded theory ethnoscience methodological triangulation synthesizing qualitative studies. Part 8 Reporting qualitative research: writing qualitative research getting published oral presentations preparing effective posters videos evaluating qualitative research.

Peggy-Anne Field

Papers

Qualitative Research Methods for Health Professionals

Nursing research : the application of qualitative approaches