The spatial and temporal distribution of diagenetic alterations in siliciclastic sequences is controlled by a complex array of interrelated parameters that prevail during eodiagenesis, mesodiagenesis and telodiagenesis. The spatial distribution of near-su

Spatial and temporal distribution of diagenetic alterations in siliciclastic rocks: implications for mass transfer in sedimentary basins

Deformation bands are the most common strain localization feature found in deformed porous sandstones and sediments, including Quaternary deposits, soft gravity slides and tectonically affected sandstones in hydrocarbon reservoirs and aquifers. They occur as various types of tabular deformation zones where grain reorganization occurs by grain sliding, rotation and/or fracture during overall dilation, shearing, and/or compaction. Deformation bands with a component of shear are most common and typically accommodate shear offsets of millimetres to centimetres. They can occur as single structures or cluster zones, and are the main deformation element of fault damage zones in porous rocks. Factors such as porosity, mineralogy, grain size and shape, lithification, state of stress and burial depth control the type of deformation band formed. Of the different types, phyllosilicate bands and most notably cataclastic deformation bands show the largest reduction in permeability, and thus have the greatest potential to influence fluid flow. Disaggregation bands, where non-cataclastic, granular flow is the dominant mechanism, show little influence on fluid flow unless assisted by chemical compaction or cementation.

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Deformation bands in sandstone: a review

A new method for generating realistic homogenous and heterogeneous 3-D pore-scale sandstone models is presented. The essence of our method is to build sandstone models which are analogs of actual sandstones by numerically modelling the results of the main sandstone-forming geological processes - sandgrain sedimentation, compaction, and diagenesis. The input data for the modelling are obtained from image analyses of thin section images of the actual sandstone. The spatial continuity of the sandstone model in the X, Y, and Z directions is determined using a scale-independent invasion percolation based algorithm. The resulting spatial continuity function, which is an ellipsoid, may be used as a heterogeneity descriptor for the sandstone model. Heterogeneity analyses show that compaction reduces the spatial continuity in the horizontal direction more rapidly than in the vertical one. The architecture and geometry of the network representation of the pore space are determined by applying various 3-D image analysis algorithms directly on the fully characterised sandstone model. A 3-D pore network which was generated from thin section data from a strongly water wet Bentheimer sandstone is used as input to a two-phase network flow simulator. Simulated transport properties for the sandstone model are in good agreement with those determined experimentally.

http://webtools.klapp.no/data/numerical/vedlegg/29_Spej35479.pdf

3-D Pore-Scale Modelling of Sandstones and Flow Simulations in the Pore Networks

Diagenesis exerts a strong control on the quality and heterogeneity of most clastic reservoirs. Variations in the distribution of diagenetic alterations usually accentuate the variations in depositional porosity and permeability. Linking the types and distribution of diagenetic processes to the depositional facies and sequence-stratigraphic framework of clastic successions provides a powerful tool to predict the distribution of diagenetic alterations controlling quality and heterogeneity. The heterogeneity patterns of sandstone reservoirs, which determine the volumes, flow rates, and recovery of hydrocarbons, are controlled by geometry and internal structures of sand bodies, grain size, sorting, degree of bioturbation, provenance, and by the types, volumes, and distribution of diagenetic alterations. Variations in the pathways of diagenetic evolution are linked to (1) depositional facies, hence pore-water chemistry, depositional porosity and permeability, types and amounts of intrabasinal grains, and extent of bioturbation; (2) detrital sand composition; (3) rate of deposition (controlling residence time of sediments at specific near-surface, geochemical conditions); and (4) burial thermal history of the basin. The amounts and types of intrabasinal grains are also controlled by changes in the relative sea level and, therefore, can be predicted in the context of sequence stratigraphy, particularly in paralic and shallow marine environments. Changes in the relative sea level exert significant control on the types and extent of near-surface shallow burial diagenetic alterations, which in turn influence the pathways of burial diagenetic and reservoir quality evolution of clastic reservoirs. Carbonate cementation is more extensive in transgressive systems tract (TST) sandstones, particularly below parasequence boundaries, transgressive surface , and maximum flooding surface because of the abundance of carbonate bioclasts and organic matter, bioturbation, and prolonged residence time of the sediments at and immediately below the sea floor caused by low sedimentation rates, which also enhance the formation of glaucony. Eogenetic grain-coating berthierine, odinite, and smectite, formed mostly in TST and early highstand systems tract deltaic and estuarine sandstones, are transformed into ferrous chlorite during mesodiagenesis, helping preserve reservoir quality through the inhibition of quartz cementation. The infiltration of grain-coating smectitic clays is more extensive in braided than in meandering fluvial sandstones, forming flow barriers in braided amalgamated reservoirs, and may either help preserve porosity during burial because of quartz overgrowth inhibition or reduce it by enhancing intergranular pressure dissolution. Diagenetic modifications along sequence boundaries are characterized by considerable dissolution and kaolinization of feldspars, micas, and mud intraclasts under wet and warm climates, whereas a semiarid climate may lead to the formation of calcrete dolocrete cemented layers. Turbidite sandstones are typically cemented by carbonate along the contacts with interbedded mudrocks or carbonate mudstones and marls, as well as along layers of concentration of carbonate bioclasts and intraclasts. Commonly, hybrid carbonate turbidite arenites are pervasively cemented. Proximal, massive turbidites normally show only scattered spherical or ovoid carbonate concretions. Improved geologic models based on the connections among diagenesis, depositional facies, and sequence-stratigraphic surfaces and intervals may not only contribute to optimized production through the design of appropriate simulation models for improved or enhanced oil recovery strategies, as well as for CO2 geologic sequestration, but also support more effective hydrocarbon exploration through reservoir quality prediction.

The impact of diagenesis on the heterogeneity of sandstone reservoirs: A review of the role of depositional facies and sequence stratigraphy

Models and concepts of sandstone diagenesis developed over the past two decades are currently employed with variable success to predict reservoir quality in hydrocarbon exploration. Not all of these are equally supported by quantitative data, observations, and rigorous hypothesis testing. Simple plots of sandstone porosity versus extrinsic parameters such as current subsurface depth or temperature are commonly extrapolated but rarely yield accurate predictions for lithified sandstones. Calibrated numerical models that simulate compaction and quartz cementation, when linked to basin models, have proven successful in predicting sandstone porosity and permeability where sufficient analog information regarding sandstone texture, composition, and quartz surface area is available. Analysis of global, regional, and local data sets indicates the following regarding contemporary diagenetic models used to predict reservoir quality. (1) The effectiveness of grain coatings on quartz grains (e.g., chlorite, microquartz) as an inhibitor of quartz cementation is supported by abundant empirical data and recent experimental results. (2) Vertical effective stress, although a fundamental factor in compaction, cannot be used alone as an accurate predictor of porosity for lithified sandstones. (3) Secondary porosity related to dissolution of framework grains and/or cements is most commonly volumetrically minor (2%). Exceptions are rare and not easily predicted with current models. (4) The hypothesis and widely held belief that hydrocarbon pore fluids suppress porosity loss due to quartz cementation is not supported by detailed data and does not represent a viable predictive model. (5) Heat-flow perturbations associated with allochthonous salt bodies can result in suppressed thermal exposure, thereby slowing the rate of quartz cementation in some subsalt sands.

Sandstone diagenesis and reservoir quality prediction: Models, myths, and reality

Textural observation of quartz dissolution at mica-quartz interfaces in sandstones from the Norwegian continental shelf show that mica grains have penetrated into quartz grains without being significantly deformed. Theoretical calculations of the mechanical properties of the mica suggest that quartz dissolution takes place at pressures less than 10 bars, i.e., at pressures only a fraction of the overburden load. Cathodoluminescence and element mapping show that K-and Al-bearing material (probably illitic and/or micaceous clay) is present at all interfaces where quartz-to-quartz dissolution and interpenetration is observed. Because illitic and micaceous clay is likely to have an effect upon quartz dissolution similar to that of mica, this suggests that what has been considered to be a ressure-solution process may instead be a clay-induced dissolution process. Because quartz-to-quartz dissolution is not observed in the absence of illitic or micaceous clay, this suggests that quartz dissolution is not mainly controlled by pressure. In a quartz-mica or quartz-illite system the rate of quartz precipitation, which is strongly controlled by the temperature, may therefore be the main control on quartz cementation (Oelkers et al. 1992, and in press).

How Important is Pressure in Causing Dissolution of Quartz in Sandstones

Petrographic data indicate that the bulk of silica cement in the Jurassic quartzose sandstones of the North Sea basin originated from quartz dissolution at mica and illitic clay interfaces which border stylolites. The distribution of cement is increasingly controlled by the distance from stylolites with increasing temperature. Dissolution of quartz at mica/quartz interfaces does not alter the mica grains chemically and can apparently proceed without mechanical deformation of the mica. No evidence is seen for quartz cement sourced from quartz/ quartz interfaces. Taking account of these observations, a quartz redistribution mechanism was developed that includes dissolution of quartz at stylolite interfaces catalyzed by the interaction of quartz grains and mica/illitic clay surfaces, diffusional transport of dissolved silica into the interstylolite regions, and its subsequent precipitation on quartz grains by kinetically controlled crystallization reactions. The variations with depth of the abundance and distribution of silica cement are controlled by the temperature dependence of quartz dissolution/ precipitation rates and aqueous diffusion coefficients. Chemical compaction proceeds with decreasing interstylolite distance as quartz cementation fills pore voids expelling fluid. Steady-state results were obtained for the combined kinetic, transport, and mass conservation equations to characterize the rate and extent of chemical compaction and quartz redistribution in sedimentary sandstones in response to quartz/mica interactions at stylolite interfaces. A close correspondence between computed results and the petrographic observations demonstrates the consistency of the proposed mechanism with the natural process.

A petrographic and computational investigation of quartz cementation and porosity reduction in North Sea sandstones

The variation of porosity in quartzose sandstones is calculated as a function of depth, temperature gradient, burial rate, stylolite frequency, and hydrocarbon saturation. Calculations were performed by considering the effects of both mechanical compaction and chemical compaction/cementation. This latter process dominates at temperatures greater than approximately 90°C and is due to quartz redistribution within the sandstone. Quartz redistribution stems from clay-induced quartz dissolution at stylolite interfaces, coupled with diffusional transport of aqueous silica into the interstylolite sandstone and precipitation on quartz surfaces as cement. Many model parameters are obtained from theoretical calculations or laboratory measurements, and few basin-dependent parameters are required to make porosity predictions. A set of porosity predictions is presented in porosity/depth figures. Close correspondence between computed results and measured porosities in cores from a variety of sedimentary basins demonstrates the accuracy of the predictions.

Porosity prediction in quartzose sandstones as a function of time, temperature, depth, stylolite frequency, and hydrocarbon saturation

Clay coatings have been widely accepted by many workers as an explanation for preserving high porosity in deeply buried sandstones, but few workers have realized that similar effects can be produced by microcrystalline quartz coatings. This phenomenon can be expected only under special circumstances, but in such cases it can have profound consequences for exploration. In the Central Graben area of the southern North Sea, unusually high porosity (20-27%) and permeability (100-1000 md) are found in certain zones in Upper Jurassic sandstones at depths of 3.4-4.4 km. The porosity in these zones is 5-15% higher than expected based on average porosity-depth trends from Brent and Haltenbanken sandstones. We propose that the high porosity is due to continuous grain coatings of euhedral microcrystalline quartz crystals that are 0.1-2 µm thick. The distribution of microcrystalline quartz coatings is controlled by the presence of siliceous sponge spicules (Rhaxella), which implies a sedimentological control on the reservoir quality. We present a thermodynamic model showing how continuous microcrystalline quartz coatings inhibit development of no mal macrocrystalline quartz overgrowths sourced mainly from stylolites. High porosities in parts of various Upper Jurassic oil fields (Ula and Gyda) have previously been explained by inhibition of quartz cementation by early hydrocarbon charge. We suggest that the microcrystalline quartz coatings provide a more plausible explanation.

Per Arne Bjorkum

Papers

How Important is Pressure in Causing Dissolution of Quartz in Sandstones

A petrographic and computational investigation of quartz cementation and porosity reduction in North Sea sandstones

Porosity prediction in quartzose sandstones as a function of time, temperature, depth, stylolite frequency, and hydrocarbon saturation

The Effect of Grain-Coating Microquartz on Preservation of Reservoir Porosity

Geometrical arrangement of calcite cementation within shallow marine sandstones