This article is a review of the literature on classroom formative assessment. Several studies show firm evidence that innovations designed to strengthen the frequent feedback that students receive about their learning yield substantial learning gains. The perceptions of students and their role in self‐assessment are considered alongside analysis of the strategies used by teachers and the formative strategies incorporated in such systemic approaches as mastery learning. There follows a more detailed and theoretical analysis of the nature of feedback, which provides a basis for a discussion of the development of theoretical models for formative assessment and of the prospects for the improvement of practice.

Assessment and Classroom Learning

Course Description In this course, we will explore the question of the actual and potential connections between democracy and education. Our focus of attention will be placed on a critical examination of democratic theory and its implications for the civic education roles and contributions of teachers, adult educators, community development practitioners, and community organizers. We will survey and deal critically with a range of competing conceptions of democracy, variously described as classical, republican, liberal, radical, marxist, neomarxist, pragmatist, feminist, populist, pluralist, postmodern, and/or participatory. Using narrative inquiry as a means for illuminating and interpreting contemporary practice, we will analyze the implications of different conceptions of democracy for the practical work of civic education.

Democracy and education.

Formative assessment is an essential component of classroom work and can raise student achievement.

"Kappan Classic": Inside the Black Box--Raising Standards through Classroom Assessment.

Meanwhile, the authors' antidote to the American sicknessa quest for democratic community that draws on our diverse civic and religious traditionshas contributed to a vigorous scholarly and popular debate. Attention has been focused on forms of social organization, be it civil society, democratic communitarianism, or associative democracy, that can humanize the market and the administrative state. In their new Introduction the authors relate the argument of their book both to the current realities of American society and to the growing debate about the country's future. With this new edition one of the most influential books of recent times takes on a new immediacy.\

Habits of the Heart: Individualism and Commitment in American Life

/pdf/inside-the-black-box-raising-standards-through-classroom-1idwtpr877.pdf

Inside the Black Box: Raising Standards Through Classroom Assessment

Choice Words shows how teachers accomplish this using their most powerful teaching tool: language. Throughout, Peter Johnston provides examples of apparently ordinary words, phrases, and uses of language that are pivotal in the orchestration of the classroom. Grounded in a study by accomplished literacy teachers, the book demonstrates how the things we say (and don't say) have surprising consequences for what children learn and for who they become as literate people. Through language, children learn how to become strategic thinkers, not merely learning the literacy strategies. In addition, Johnston examines the complex learning that teachers produce in classrooms that is hard to name and thus is not recognized by tests, by policy-makers, by the general public, and often by teachers themselves, yet is vitally important.

Choice Words: How Our Language Affects Children's Learning

Research methodology on the use of verbal reports in reading research

not refer back to the text. The biasing effects of prior knowledge were demonstrated both within subjects and between subpopulations (rural and urban). Bias was shown to operate at the level of the individual and therefore should be removed at that level, not at the population level. This was achieved by using a content-specific vocabulary test to estimate prior knowledge, and incidentally resulted in a decrease in the bias due to intelligence. A conventional approach to bias removal (collapsing across several text content areas) also removed the bias due to prior knowledge, but resulted in greater bias relating to intelligence. Results are interpreted to suggest modifications of current reading comprehension tests and methods of dealing with bias.

/pdf/prior-knowledge-and-reading-comprehension-test-bias-3q3aam3abg.pdf

Prior knowledge and reading comprehension test bias

Michael Pressley, Foreword. Part I: What do we Know and Need to Know about Good Fourth-Grade Teaching? Teaching Fourth Grade in the 21st Century. What Do We Know about Effective Fourth-Grade Teachers? Part II: What do Good Classrooms Look and Feel Like? Johnston, Backer, Inquiry and Good Conversation: "I Learn a Lot from Them". Ivey, "Responsibility and Respect for Themselves and for Whatever it is They're Doing": Learning to Be Literate in an Inclusive Classroom. Wharton-McDonald, Williamson, "Focus on the Real and Make Sure it Connects to Kids' Lives". Day, "We Learn from Each Other": Collaboration and Community in a Bilingual Classroom. Johnston, Quinlan, A Caring, Responsible Learning Community. Johnston, Bennett, Cronin, "I Want Students Who Are Thinkers". Part III: What have we Learned about Good Fourth-Grade Teaching? Integrated Instruction in Exemplary Fourth Grade Classrooms. Literate Achievements in Fourth Grade. The Nature of Good Fourth-Grade Teaching. Duffy, Shifting the Focus of the Reading Debate: A Cautionary Afterword. Appendix: Achievement Growth on Standardized Reading Tests.

Reading to Learn: Lessons from Exemplary Fourth-Grade Classrooms

This study examines students' perceptions of the outcomes and processes of engaged reading in classrooms prioritizing engagement through self-selected, self-paced reading of compelling young adult literature. The primary data were 71 end-of-year student interviews, supported by end-of-year teacher interviews, biweekly observational data, on-the-fly conversations with students, and video/audio records of student-initiated book discussions. An inductive analysis yielded 15 main categories of outcomes, including changes in students' identities, in their sense of agency, and in their relational, moral, and intellectual lives. The web of relationships among the processes and outcomes is examined through 317 causal statements made by students in interviews. Finally, a case study illustrates the cascading and reciprocal effects of engaged reading on one student's development. These adolescents showed, to varying degrees, an awareness of these processes and self-transformations, and thus a sense of agency with respect to their own development—their personhood and future narratives. This study raises questions about the adequacy of existing models of engagement for explaining students' engaged reading experiences and about currently advocated approaches to teaching English language arts that (a) minimize the roles of engagement and fiction, (b) require students to read the same text, (c) focus on engaged reading as an individual cognitive act without regard for the social nature of literate and human development, and (d) expect uniform outcomes across students.



本研究调查学生对教室中阅读投入的成果与过程之看法,该阅读投入是通过着重自选自订进度,让学生阅读富趣味性的年轻成人文学作品。原始研究资料来自71名学生的访谈(并以教师年终访谈做印证)、每两周的观课、与学生的即时交谈,以及学生自发的阅书讨论的视频/音频资料及记录。归纳分析产生了15种主要类别的阅读成果,其中包括下列方面的转变:学生身份认同、学生原动力意识,以及学生的关系、道德和知识生活。研究者根据学生在访谈中提出的317个因果关系陈述,考查阅读过程与成果之间的关系网络。最后,案例研究说明了阅读投入对一名学生发展所产生的连带效应和相互效应。这些青少年在不同程度上表示意识到这些过程和自我转化,因此在他们的自我发展方面是一种原动力意识,也是他们对做人的和未来的叙述。本研究质疑现行的阅读投入模型是否足以解释学生投入阅读的经验,更质疑现今所鼓吹的英语语言艺术教学方法的四方面;(1)轻视阅读投入与小说的重要性,(2)要求学生阅读同一样的文本,(3)侧重个人认知行为的阅读投入,而忽略文学和人文发展的社会性质,以及 (4) 期望所有学生会有同一样的学习成果。



Este estudio examina la impresion que tienen los estudiantes sobre los resultados y los procesos de la lectura comprometida que le dan prioridad a dicho compromiso por medio de la lectura de literatura para adultos jovenes que ellos mismos escogen y leen a su propio ritmo. Los datos principales se obtuvieron entrevistando a 71 estudiantes al final de ano, y fueron apoyados por entrevistas a los maestro al final del ano, observaciones bisemanales, conversaciones espontaneas con los estudiantes, y video/audio grabaciones de discusiones iniciadas por los estudiantes de alguna lectura. Un analisis inductivo dio 15 categorias fundamentales de resultados, incluyendo cambios en la identidad de los estudiantes, en su sentido de poder, y en sus vidas relacionales, morales e intelectuales. La red de relaciones entre los procesos y los resultados se examino estudiando 317 declaraciones casuales hechas por los estudiantes durante las entrevistas. Por ultimo, el estudio de un caso muestra los efectos escalonados y reciprocos de la lectura comprometida en el desarrollo de un estudiante. Estos adolescentes mostraron, en diferentes grados, cierta conciencia de dichos procesos y transformaciones en ellos mismos, y de ahi, un sentido de poder en cuanto a su propio desarrollo–su ser como persona y su futuro. Este estudio nos lleva a cuestionar no solo la suficiencia de los modelos existentes del compromiso para explicar las experiencias de los estudiantes con la lectura comprometida, sino tambien los acercamientos que se recomiendan hoy dia a la ensenanza del ingles que (a) reducen al minimo el rol del compromiso y la ficcion, (b) exigen que los estudiantes lean el mismo texto, (c) ven la lectura comprometida como una experiencia cognitiva personal sin tomar en cuenta la naturaleza social del desarrollo humano y de ser letrado, y (d) espera el mismo resultado para cada estudiante.



تطرقت هذه الدراسة إلى تأثيرات التدخل المتدرج المبني على الاستجابة مدته عدة سنوات للقراء المتصارعين في الصفوف من السادس إلى الثامن.وقد تم اختيار عينة عشوائيا من 768 طالبا من الصف السادس تنجلي فيهم صعوبات قرائية ليتعرضوا لتدخل متدرج مبني على الاستجابة أو لعدم التعرض للتدخل حيث »تجري الأمور كالمعتاد«وداومت حالة العلاج الأولي طيلة السنوات الثلاثة للدراسة. وليقدر تأثير العلاج وليتناول الأسئلة بصدد تسارع التعلم لقد تم تحديد نموذج نمو ذات المستويات العديدة ومؤشر معدد وهذا مثل المسارات المرجحة لمجموعة الطلاب المختارة عشوائيا (في خريف الصف السادس) للعلاج.وقد تم تحديد المسارات مدتها ثلاث سنوات ومن المرجح أن تمثل نتائجها اتجاهات متعددة السنوات لكل من المجموعات الثلاث. وقد تفوقت المجموعة المعالجة على المجموعة الضابطة عموما.وقد بلغ حجم التأثير حسب النموذج المتعدد المستويات ومؤشره المتدرج .26. وبالإضافة إلى ذلك تفوقت المجموعة المعالجة على مجموعة من قراء عاديين حين تصور الإنجاز من حيث الانحدار مع مرور الوقت. ومع ذلك بقيت فجوة كيبرة بين المجموعة المعالجة ومجموعة القراء العاديية في ربيع الصف الثامن.



Дaннoeиccлeдoвaниeпocвящeнoпpeдcтaвлeниямпoдpocткoв o пpoцeccax и итoгaxocмыcлeннoгoцeлeнaпpaвлeннoгooбщeния c книгoй, кoгдaимпpeдocтaвлeнoпpaвoвыбopaлитepaтypыпoинтepecaм и чтeния c yдoбнoйдляниxcкopocтью.Ocнoвныeдaнныe: интepвью c yчaщимиcя (n=71), a тaкжe c yчитeлями, взятыe в кoнцeyчeбнoгoгoдa, нaблюдeниeнaypoкaxдвapaзa в мecяц, пocтoянныeбeceды c yчeникaми и видeo/ayдиoзaпиcидиcкyccий o пpoчитaннoм, кoтopыeвoзникaлипoинициaтивecaмиxшкoльникoв. Индyктивныйaнaлизвыявилpeзyльтaты, кoтopыeмoжнoпoдpaздeлитьнa 15 ocнoвныxкaтeгopий, в тoмчиcлe: измeнeния в личнocтиyчaщиxcя, в иxпpиcтpacтияx, в иxвзaимooтнoшeнияx c людьми, в иxнpaвcтвeннoй и интeллeктyaльнoйжизни. Bзaимocвязимeждyпpoцeccaми и peзyльтaтaмичтeнияиccлeдoвaнынaocнoвe 317-и peплик, пpoизнeceнныxшкoльникaми в xoдeинтepвью. B кaчecтвeпpимepaпpивeдeнoкeйc-иccлeдoвaниeoбщeния c книгoйoднoгoyчeникa: эффeктнaкoплeнияпpoчитaннoгo и взaимoдeйcтвиeчтeния c инымиoблacтямиeгoжизни. Пoдpocткипpoдeмoнcтpиpoвaли – в paзнoйcтeпeни – пoнимaниeпpoиcxoдящиx c нимипpoцeccoв и личнocтныxпepeмeн.Taкимoбpaзoм, oниcoзнaтeльнoвoвлeчeны в cтaнoвлeниecoбcтвeннoйидeнтичнocти и нaмeчaютcвoибyдyщиeнappaтивы.Этoиccлeдoвaниeпoднимaeтвoпpocыoбaдeквaтнocтимoдeлeй, пpaктикyeмыxнынeдлявoвлeчeнияyчaщиxcя в пpoцeccocмыcлeннoгoчтeния и длятpaктoвкиoпытa, кoтopыйoниoбpeтaют в пpoцecceтaкoгoчтeния.Oчeвиднo, чтopacпpocтpaнeнныeпoдxoды в oбyчeнииcлoвecнocти (нaocнoвeaнглийcкoгoкaкпepвoгoязыкa), (a) минимизиpyютpoльocмыcлeннoгoзaинтepecoвaннoгoчтeния и xyдoжecтвeннoйлитepaтypы, (б) тpeбyют, чтoбыyчeникичитaлиoдни и тeжeтeкcты, (в) cчитaютчтeниeиндивидyaльнымкoгнитивнымaктoм, игнopиpyяcoциaльныйxapaктeppaзвитияличнocти и гpaмoтнocти, (г) oжидaютвcexyчaщиxcяoдинaкoвыxpeзyльтaтoв.



Cetterechercheportesur la perception qu'ont les eleves des effets et des processus de l'engagementdans la lecture dans des classes faisant de cet engagement unepriorite en laissant les eleveslibres de leurchoix et de leurrythme de lecture de livresdestines a de jeunesadultes. Les donnees de base sont 71 entretiens en fin d ‘annee avec des eleves, renforces par des entretiens en fin d'annee avec des enseignants, les resultatsd'observationseffectueesdeuxfois par semaine, des conversations a bâtonrompu avec les eleves, et des enregistrements audio et video a partir des livreslus par les eleves. Uneanalyse inductive a permis de faire apparaitre 15 categoriesprincipalesd'effets, dont des changementsdansl'identite des eleves, leursens de l'action, etleur vie sociale, morale et intellectuelle. Le reseau des relations entre les effetset les processus a eteetabli grâce aux 317 liens de causaliteenonces par les eleveslors des entretiens. Finalement, uneetude de caspermetd'illustrer les effets en cascade et reciproques de l'engagementdans la lecture et du developpement chez un eleve. Ces adolescents montrent, a des degres divers, une conscience de cesprocessuset de ces transformations personnelles, et donc un sentiment de pouvoir en ce qui concerneleurdeveloppement personnel, leurpersonnalite et leur vie future. Cetteetudesouleve des questions quant a l'adequation des modelesrelatifs a l'engagementquandils'agitd'expliquer les experiencesd'engagementdans la lecture et les methodesd'enseignement de la litteratureanglaisequel'onpreconisehabituellement et qui (a) minimisent le role de l'engagement et de la fiction, (b) font lire le memetexte a tous les eleves, (c) considerentl'engagementdans la lecture comme un acteindividuel sans prendre en compte la nature sociale du developpement de la litterature et du developpementhumain, et (d) s'attendent a des effetsidentiquessur tout le monde.

Peter Johnston

Papers

Choice Words: How Our Language Affects Children's Learning

Research methodology on the use of verbal reports in reading research

Prior knowledge and reading comprehension test bias

Reading to Learn: Lessons from Exemplary Fourth-Grade Classrooms

Engagement With Young Adult Literature: Outcomes and Processes