How to Do Things With Words

The power of feedback.

Note on Translation Introduction by Michael Holquist Response to a Question from the Novy Mir Editorial Staff The Bildungsroman and Its Significance in the History of Realism (Toward a Historical Typology of the Novel) The Problem of Speech Genres The Problem of the Text in Linguistics, Philology, and the Human Sciences: An Experiment in Philosophical Analysis From Notes Made in 1970-71 Toward a Methodology for the Human Sciences Index

Speech Genres and Other Late Essays

Dedication Preface Foreword PART I: FRAME OF REFERENCE We begin with the idea of giving students the tools that increase their capacity for learning. The primary role of education is to increase student capacity for personal growth, social growth, and academic learning. Models of Teaching is an avenue to liberate student learning capacity and, by doing so, to help teachers take charge of their lives as teachers. CHAPTER 1: BEGINNING THE INQUIRY Creating Communities of Expert Learners On the whole, students are in schools and classes within those schools. Both need to be developed into learning communities and provided with the models of learning that enable them to become expert learners. We study how to build those learning communities. CHAPTER 2: WHERE MODELS OF TEACHING COME FROM Multiple Ways of Constructing Knowledge The history of teacher researchers comes to us in the form of models of teaching that enable us to construct vital environments for our students. Models have come from the ages and from teacher-researchers who have invented new ways of teaching. Some of these are submitted to research and development and how teachers can learn to use them. Those are the models that are included in this book. CHAPTER 3: STUDYING THE SLOWLY-GROWING KNOWLEDGE BASE IN EDUCATION A Basic Guide Through the Rhetorical Thickets We draw on descriptive studies, experimental studies, and experience to give us a fine beginning to what will eventually become a research-based profession. Here we examine what we have learned about how to design good instruction and effective curriculums. And, we learn how to avoid some destructive practices. CHAPTER 4: MODELS OF TEACHING AND TEACHING STYLES Three Sides of Teaching--Styles, Models, and Diversity We are people and our personalities greatly affect the environments that our students experience. And, as we use various models of teaching our selves -- our natural styles -- color how those models work in the thousands of classrooms in our society. Moreover, those models and our styles affect the achievement of the diverse students in our classes and schools. PART II: THE INFORMATION-PROCESSING FAMILYOF MODELS How can we and our students best acquire information, organize it, and explain it? For thousands of years philosophers, educators, psychologists, and artists have developed ways to gather and process information. Here are several live ones. CHAPTER 5: LEARNING TO THINK INDUCTIVELY Forming Concepts by Collecting and Organizing Information Human beings are born to build concepts. The vast intake of information is sifted and organized and the conceptual structures that guide our lives are developed. The inductive model builds on and enhances the inborn capacity of our students. CHAPTER 6: ATTAINING CONCEPTS Sharpening Basic Thinking Skills Students can develop concepts. They also can learn concepts developed by others. Concept attainment teaches students how to learn and use concepts and develop and test hypotheses. CHAPTER 7: THE PICTURE-WORD INDUCTIVE MODEL Developing Literacy across the Curriculum Built on the language experience approach, the picture-word inductive model enables beginning readers to develop sight vocabularies, learn to inquire into the structure of words and sentences, write sentences and paragraphs, and, thus, to be powerful language learners. In Chapter 19 the outstanding results from primary curriculums and curriculums for older struggling readers are displayed. CHAPTER 8: SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY AND INQUIRY TRAINING The Art of Making Inferences From the time of Aristotle, we have had educators who taught science-in-the-making rather than teaching a few facts and hoping for the best. We introduce you to a model of teaching that is science on the hoof, so to speak. This model has had effects, among other things, on improving the capacity of students to learn. We concentrate on the Biological Sciences Study Group, where for 40 years science teachers have shared information and generated new ideas. And, Inquiry training is a "best yet" model for teaching basic inquiry skills. CHAPTER 9: MEMORIZATION Getting the Facts Straight Memorization has had something of a bad name, mostly because of deadly drills. Contemporary research and innovative teachers have created methods that not only improve our efficiency in memorization, but also make the process delightful. CHAPTER 10: SYNECTICS The Arts of Enhancing Creative Thought Creative thought has often been thought of as the province of a special few, and something that the rest of us cannot aspire to. Not so. Synectics brings to all students the development of metaphoric thinking -- the foundation of creative thought. The model continues to improve. CHAPTER 11: LEARNING FROM PRESENTATIONS Advance Organizers Learning from presentations has almost as bad a name as learning by memorization. Ausubel developed a system for creating lectures and other presentations that will increase learner activity and, subsequently, learning. PART III: THE SOCIAL FAMILY OF MODELS Working together might just enhance all of us. The social family expands what we can do together and generates the creation of democracy in our society in venues large and small. In addition, the creation of learning communities can enhance the learning of all students dramatically. CHAPTER 12: PARTNERS IN LEARNING From Dyads to Group Investigation Can two students who are paired in learning increase their learning? Can students organized into a democratic learning community apply scientific methods to their learning? You bet they can. Group Investigation can be used to redesign schools, increase personal, social, and academic learning among all students, and -- is very satisfying to teach. CHAPTER 13: THE STUDY OF VALUES Role Playing and Public Policy Education Values provide the center of our behavior, helping us get direction and understand other directions. Policy issues involve the understanding of values and the costs and benefits of selecting some solutions rather than others. In these models, values are central. Think for a moment about the issues that face our society right now -- research on cells, international peace, including our roles in Iraq and the rest of the Middle East, the battle against AIDS, poverty, and who controls the decisions about pregnancy and abortion. Not to mention just getting along together. PART IV: THE PERSONAL FAMILY OF MODELS The learner always does the learning. His or her personality is what interacts with the learning environment. How do we give the learner centrality when we are trying to get that same person to grow and respond to tasks we believe will enhance growth? CHAPTER 14: NONDIRECTIVE TEACHING The Learner at the Center How do we think about ourselves as learners? As people? How can we organize schooling so that the personalities and emotions of students are taken into account? Let us inquire into the person who is the center of the education process. CHAPTER 15: DEVELOPING POSITIVE SELF-CONCEPTS The Inner Person of Boys and Girls, Men and Women If you feel great about yourself, you are likely to become a better learner. But you begin where you are. Enhancing self concept is a likely avenue. The wonderful work by the SIMs group in Kansas (see Chapter 3) has demonstrated how much can be accomplished. PART V: THE BEHAVIORAL SYSTEMS FAMILY OF MODELS We are what we do. So how do we learn to practice more productive behaviors? Let's explore some of the possibilities. CHAPTER 16: LEARNING TO LEARN FROM MASTERY LEARNING Bit by bit, block by block, we climb our way up a ladder to mastery. CHAPTER 17: DIRECT INSTRUCTION Why beat around the bush when you can just deal with things directly? Let's go for it! However, finesse is required, and that is what this chapter is all about. CHAPTER 18: LEARNING FROM SIMULATIONS Training and Self-Training How much can we learn from quasi-realities? The answer is, a good deal. Simulations enable us to learn from virtual realities where we can experience environments and problems beyond our present environment. Presently, they range all the way to space travel, thanks to NASA and affiliated developers. PART VI: INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES, DIVERSITY, AND CURRICULUM The rich countryside of humanity makes up the population of our schools. The evidence suggests that diversity enhances the energy of schools and classrooms. However, some forms of teaching make it difficult for individual differences to flourish. We emphasize the curriculums and models of teaching that enable individual differences to thrive. CHAPTER 19: LEARNING STYLES AND MODELS OF TEACHING Making Discomfort Productive By definition, learning requires knowing, thinking, or doing things we couldn't do before the learning took place. Curriculums and teaching need to be shaped to take us where we haven't been. The trick is to develop an optimal mismatch in which we are pushed but the distance is manageable. CHAPTER 20: EQUITY Gender, Ethnicity, and Socioeconomic Background The task here is to enable differences to become an advantage. The best curriculums and models of teaching do just that. In other words, if differences are disadvantages, it is because of how we teach. CHAPTER 21: CREATING AND TESTING CURRICULUMS The Conditions of Learning Robert Gagne's framework for building curriculums is discussed and illustrated. This content is not simple, but it is powerful. CHAPTER 22: TWO WORDS ON THE FUTURE The Promise of Distance Learning and Using Models of Teaching to Ensure that No Child is Left Behind. Afterword APPENDIX PEER COACHING GUIDES Related Literature and References Index

教学模式 = Models of Teaching

Child psychiatrists, pediatricians, and other child clinicians need to have a solid understanding of child language development. There are at least four important reasons that make this necessary. First, slowing, arrest, and deviation of language development are highly associated with, and complicate the course of, child psychopathology. Second, language competence plays a crucial role in emotional and mood regulation, evaluation, and therapy. Third, language deficits are the most frequent underpinning of the learning disorders, ubiquitous in our clinical populations. Fourth, clinicians should not confuse the rich linguistic and dialectal diversity of our clinical populations with abnormalities in child language development. The challenge for the clinician becomes, then, how to get immersed in the captivating field of child language acquisition without getting overwhelmed by its conceptual and empirical complexity. In the past 50 years and since the seminal works of Roger Brown, Jerome Bruner, and Catherine Snow, child language researchers (often known as developmental psycholinguists) have produced a remarkable body of knowledge. Linguists such as Chomsky and philosophers such as Grice have strongly influenced the science of child language. One of the major tenets of Chomskian linguistics (known as generative grammar) is that children’s capacity to acquire language is “hardwired” with “universal grammar”—an innate language acquisition device (LAD), a language “instinct”—at its core. This view is in part supported by the assertion that the linguistic input that children receive is relatively dismal and of poor quality relative to the high quantity and quality of output that they manage to produce after age 2 and that only an advanced, innate capacity to decode and organize linguistic input can enable them to “get from here (prelinguistic infant) to there (linguistic child).” In “Constructing a Language,” Tomasello presents a contrasting theory of how the child acquires language: It is not a universal grammar that allows for language development. Rather, human cognition universals of communicative needs and vocal-auditory processing result in some language universals, such as nouns and verbs as expressions of reference and predication (p. 19). The author proposes that two sets of cognitive skills resulting from biological/phylogenetic adaptations are fundamental to the ontogenetic origins of language. These sets of inherited cognitive skills are intentionreading on the one hand and pattern-finding, on the other. Intention-reading skills encompass the prelinguistic infant’s capacities to share attention to outside events with other persons, establishing joint attentional frames, to understand other people’s communicative intentions, and to imitate the adult’s communicative intentions (an intersubjective form of imitation that requires symbolic understanding and perspective-taking). Pattern-finding skills include the ability of infants as young as 7 months old to analyze concepts and percepts (most relevant here, auditory or speech percepts) and create concrete or abstract categories that contain analogous items. Tomasello, a most prominent developmental scientist with research foci on child language acquisition and on social cognition and social learning in children and primates, succinctly and clearly introduces the major points of his theory and his views on the origins of language in the initial chapters. In subsequent chapters, he delves into the details by covering most language acquisition domains, namely, word (lexical) learning, syntax, and morphology and conversation, narrative, and extended discourse. Although one of the remaining domains (pragmatics) is at the core of his theory and permeates the text throughout, the relative paucity of passages explicitly devoted to discussing acquisition and proBOOK REVIEWS

Constructing a language: A usage-based theory of language acquisition

This paper presents Apex, a system that can automatically assess a student essay based on its content. It relies on Latent Semantic Analysis, a tool which is used to represent the meaning of words as vectors in a high-dimensional space. By comparing an essay and the text of a given course on a semantic basis, our system can measure how well the essay matches the text. Various assessments are presented to the student regarding the topic, the outline and the coherence of the essay. Our experiments yield promising results.

/pdf/a-system-to-assess-the-semantic-content-of-student-essays-4kb32qzil2.pdf

A System To Assess the Semantic Content of Student Essays.

As Computer Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL) gains a broader usage, the need for automated tools capable of supporting tutors in the time-consuming process of analyzing conversations becomes more pressing. Moreover, collaboration, which presumes the intertwining of ideas or points of view among participants, is a central element of dialogue performed in CSCL environments. Therefore, starting from dialogism and a cohesion-based model of discourse, we propose and validate two computational models for assessing collaboration. The first model is based on a cohesion graph and can be perceived as a longitudinal analysis of the ongoing conversation, thus accounting for collaboration from a social knowledge-building perspective. In the second approach, collaboration is regarded from a dialogical perspective as the intertwining or synergy of voices pertaining to different speakers, therefore enabling a transversal analysis of subsequent discussion slices. Abstract As Computer Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL) gains a broader usage, the need for automated tools capable of supporting tutors in the time-consuming process of analyzing conversations becomes more pressing. Moreover, collaboration, which presumes the intertwining of ideas or points of view among participants, is a central element of dialogue performed in CSCL environments. Therefore, starting from dialogism and a cohesion-based model of discourse, we propose and validate two computational models for assessing collaboration. The first model is based on a cohesion graph and can be perceived as a longitudinal analysis of the ongoing conversation, thus accounting for collaboration from a social knowledge-building perspective. In the second approach, collaboration is regarded from a dialogical perspective as the intertwining or synergy of voices pertaining to different speakers, therefore enabling a transversal analysis of subsequent discussion slices.

/pdf/readerbench-automated-evaluation-of-collaboration-based-on-48rcbhbte4.pdf

ReaderBench: Automated evaluation of collaboration based on cohesion and dialogism

The chapter introduces ReaderBench, a multi-lingual and flexible environment that integrates text mining technologies for assessing a wide range of learners' productions and for supporting teachers in several ways. ReaderBench offers three main functionalities in terms of text analysis: cohesion-based assessment, reading strategies identification and textual complexity evaluation. All of these have been subject to empirical validations. ReaderBench may be used throughout an entire educational scenario, starting from the initial complexity assessment of the reading materials, the assignment of texts to learners, the detection of reading strategies reflected in one's self-explanations, and comprehension evaluation fostering learner's self-regulation process.

https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00979702/document

Mining Texts, Learner Productions and Strategies with ReaderBench

ReaderBench is a multi-purpose, multi-lingual and flexible environment that enables the assessment of a wide range of learners' productions and their manipulation by the teacher. ReaderBench allows the assessment of three main textual features: cohesion-based assessment, reading strategies identification and textual complexity evaluation, which have been subject to empirical validations. ReaderBench covers a complete cycle, from the initial complexity assessment of reading materials, the assignment of texts to learners, the capture of metacognitions reflected in one's textual verbalizations and comprehension evaluation, therefore fostering learner's self-regulation process.

/pdf/readerbench-an-environment-for-analyzing-text-complexity-and-2yzyk1n8ii.pdf

ReaderBench, an Environment for Analyzing Text Complexity and Reading Strategies

Current web-based learning environments (such as WebCT or LearningSpace) are better at presenting the content than assessing the learning. Indeed, these environments provide sophisticated access to learning content by means of images, videos, sounds, hypertexts, glossaries, etc. However, their main weakness lies in the assessment part. Either the tests are based on rigid technologies such as quiz or multiple-choice questions (MCQ), or a teacher is required to manage forums or asynchronous e-mail exchanges. In this article we present Apex, a module of a web-based learning environment which is able to assess student knowledge based on the content of free texts. The goal of this module is not just to grade student productions but rather to engage students in an iterative process of writing/assessing at a distance. In addition to the preparation of their courses, teachers are required to partition them, to design exam questions, and to select the parts of the course that cover these questions. All courses, questions and student essays are managed by a database which is part of Apex. The assessment relies on Latent Semantic Analysis, a tool which is used to represent the meaning of words as vectors in a high-dimensional space. By comparing an essay and the text of a given course on a semantic basis, our system can measure how well the essay matches the course. Various assessments are presented to the student regarding the content, the outline and the coherence of the essay. These assessments provide a more authentic feedback than those

/pdf/free-text-assessment-in-a-virtual-campus-32hgi2a3te.pdf

Philippe Dessus

Papers

A System To Assess the Semantic Content of Student Essays.

ReaderBench: Automated evaluation of collaboration based on cohesion and dialogism

Mining Texts, Learner Productions and Strategies with ReaderBench

ReaderBench, an Environment for Analyzing Text Complexity and Reading Strategies

Free-Text Assessment in a Virtual Campus