Reciprocity is an important factor in human-human interaction, so it can be expected that it should also play a major role in human-robot interaction (HRI). Participants in our study played the Repeated Prisoner's Dilemma Game (RPDG) and the mini Ultimatum Game (mUG) with robot and human agents, with the agents using either Tit for Tat (TfT) or Random strategies. As part of the study we also measured the perceived personality traits in the agents using the TIPI test after every round of RPDG and mUG. The results show that the participants collaborated more with humans than with a robot, however they tended to be equally reciprocal with both agents. The experiment also showed the TfT strategy as the most profitable strategy; affecting collaboration, reciprocation, profit and joint profit in the game. Most of the participants tended to be fairer with the human agent in mUG. Furthermore, robots were perceived as less open and agreeable than humans. Consciousness, extroversion and emotional stability were perceived roughly the same in humans and robots. TfT strategy became associated with an extroverted and agreeable personality in the agents. We could observe that the norm of reciprocity applied in HRI has potential implications for robot design.

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Reciprocity in Human-Robot Interaction: A Quantitative Approach Through the Prisoner’s Dilemma and the Ultimatum Game

The Journey is the Reward Chinese Proverb Reciprocity is a basic characteristic of Human-Human Interaction (HHI). However, there have not been many previous studies about reciprocity in Human-Robot Interaction (HRI). The imminent coming of social robots interacting with users in their daily spaces has encouraged researchers in HRI to describe these new relations between humans and robots in terms of reciprocity, persuasion, likeability, and trust. Consequently, these studies could have an impact on the design of new social robots. The development of this thesis considers three main research questions: 1. To what extent do humans reciprocate towards robots? 2. To what extent can robots use reciprocation for their own benefit? 3. What are the most beneficial and preferred reciprocal strategies between humans and robots? I used Game Theory to develop three experimental studies. Decision games such as Prisoner’s Dilemma, Ultimatum Game, Repeated Ultimatum Game and Rock, Paper, Scissors were used in the experiments. These games offer an engaging interaction between the participants and the robots, and they allow measuring of the variables related to reciprocity in HRI. The operationalisation of the studies was done under the definition of Reciprocity proposed by Fehr and Gaechter [53] which explains: in response to friendly actions, people are frequently much nicer and much more cooperative than predicted by the self-interest model; conversely, in response to hostile actions they are frequently much more nasty and even brutal. In addition to this, in the first and third study the "tit for tat" strategy was used with different modifications since it is a well-studied reciprocal strategy tested in previous experiments. Our main goal was to measure to what extent the Norm of Reciprocity,"to those who help us, we should return help, not harm" proposed by Gouldner [63] applies to Human-Robot Interaction in all the studies.

Reciprocity in human robot interaction.

Attitudes toward family gender roles were examined using data collected in family courses since 1968. Data contributed by single men (N=803) and women (N=1,830) in response to a questionnaire were grouped into 2-year intervals. Factor analysis was used to produce gender role assessment scales, and gender differences were assessed using a t-test for separate groups. Gender differences in attitudes toward love also were examined. Some trends emerged that seemed to reflect broader changes in married gender role prescriptions and sexual attitudes. The most consistent change was reflected in gender roles providing less authority to males and greater latitude toward females in financial and other areas. In the areas of wife-husband economic control and decision making, changes seem to be consistent with the greater participation of married women in the paid labor force. Attitudes about love were less consistent although they did reflect gender differences in that men, of college age, tended to be more idealistic about romance and family relations and to hold a less realistic attitude toward motherhood than did women. Where gender differences occurred in attitud:-..: toward premarital sex, males tended to be more accepting of premarital sexual behavior for both men and women than were females, and this was reflected in the males' sexual behavior as well. Findings suggest that attitudes are changing and that men and women continue to differ in their attitudes. (Contains 47 references.) (NB)

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Phillip R. Kunz

Papers

Romantic Love and Reciprocity