A systematic search of the research literature from 1996 through July 2008 identified more than a thousand empirical studies of online learning. Analysts screened these studies to find those that (a) contrasted an online to a face-to-face condition, (b) measured student learning outcomes, (c) used a rigorous research design, and (d) provided adequate information to calculate an effect size. As a result of this screening, 51 independent effects were identified that could be subjected to meta-analysis. The meta-analysis found that, on average, students in online learning conditions performed better than those receiving face-to-face instruction. The difference between student outcomes for online and face-to-face classes—measured as the difference between treatment and control means, divided by the pooled standard deviation—was larger in those studies contrasting conditions that blended elements of online and face-to-face instruction with conditions taught entirely face-to-face. Analysts noted that these blended conditions often included additional learning time and instructional elements not received by students in control conditions. This finding suggests that the positive effects associated with blended learning should not be attributed to the media, per se. An unexpected finding was the small number of rigorous published studies contrasting online and face-to-face learning conditions for K–12 students. In light of this small corpus, caution is required in generalizing to the K–12 population because the results are derived for the most part from studies in other settings (e.g., medical training, higher education).

Evaluation of Evidence-Based Practices in Online Learning: A Meta-Analysis and Review of Online Learning Studies

Problem: Partial least squares (PLS), a form of structural equation modeling (SEM), can provide much value for causal inquiry in communication-related and behavioral research fields. Despite the wide availability of technical information on PLS, many behavioral and communication researchers often do not use PLS in situations in which it could provide unique theoretical insights. Moreover, complex models comprising formative (causal) and reflective (consequent) constructs are now common in behavioral research, but they are often misspecified in statistical models, resulting in erroneous tests. Key concepts: First-generation (1G) techniques, such as correlations, regressions, or difference of means tests (such as ANOVA or ${\rm t}$ -tests), offer limited modeling capabilities, particularly in terms of causal modeling. In contrast, second-generation techniques (such as covariance-based SEM or PLS) offer extensive, scalable, and flexible causal-modeling capabilities. Second-generation (2G) techniques do not invalidate the need for 1G techniques however. The key point of 2G techniques is that they are superior for the complex causal modeling that dominates recent communication and behavioral research. Key lessons: For exploratory work, or for studies that include formative constructs, PLS should be selected. For confirmatory work, either covariance-based SEM or PLS may be used. Despite claims that lower sampling requirements exist for PLS, inadequate sample sizes result in the same problems for either technique. Implications: SEM's strength is in modeling. In particular, SEM allows for complex models that include latent (unobserved) variables, formative variables, chains of effects (mediation), and multiple group comparisons of these more complex relationships.

Partial Least Squares (PLS) Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) for Building and Testing Behavioral Causal Theory: When to Choose It and How to Use It

The mediating role of trust and commitment on members' continuous knowledge sharing intention

Evolutionary psychology holds great promise as one of the possible pillars on which information systems theorizing can take place. Arguably, evolutionary psychology can provide the key to many counterintuitive predictions of behavior toward technology, because many of the evolved instincts that influence our behavior are below our level of conscious awareness; often those instincts lead to behavioral responses that are not self-evident. This paper provides a discussion of information systems theorizing based on evolutionary psychology, centered on key human evolution and evolutionary genetics concepts and notions. It is argued here that there is often a need to integrate evolutionary and non-evolutionary theories, and four important preconditions for the successful integration of evolutionary and non-evolutionary theories are discussed. An example of integration of evolutionary and non-evolutionary theories is provided. The example focuses on one evolutionary information systems theory-media naturalness theory-previously developed as an alternative to media richness theory, and one non-evolutionary information systems theory, channel expansion theory.

/pdf/information-systems-theorizing-based-on-evolutionary-lcav17p4rz.pdf

Information systems theorizing based on evolutionary psychology: an interdisciplinary review and theory integration framework

The development of digital technologies increases the use of distance synchronous (real-time) interactions among people. The study explores whether the readiness to participate, the degree of actual participation, and the quality of contribution to synchronous online group discussions is affected by participant personality, media characteristics, and discussion topic sensitivity. The relation between anticipated and actual participation was investigated, as well as the interpersonal and gender equalization effects of online communication. An online self-report viral survey was completed by 405 adult Internet users. Following that, 120 volunteers extracted from this sample were randomly assigned to small, gender-mixed groups, employing face-to-face, online audio or online text chat experimental conditions, and conducted two non-moderated discussions (having low and high degrees of topic sensitivity). A greater interest in discussing sensitive over non-sensitive topic can explain higher participation and quality of contribution. Online text chat appeared as an efficient medium, in which the quality of participant contributions was similar to spoken discussions, obtained by smaller amount of words. Discussing sensitive topic, participants felt more comfortable using "lean" text-only medium. As hypothesized, participant personality affected the involvement in discussions: extroverts preferred taking part via a more revealing communication medium while introverts expressed greater readiness for holding discussions via text chat.

How Do Personality, Synchronous Media, and Discussion Topic Affect Participation?

It is evolutionarily adaptive for humans to have enhanced memories of events surrounding surprise situations, because in our ancestral past surprise situations were often associated with survival threats. Vividly remembering memories immediately before and after a snake attack, for example, allowed our hominid ancestors to be better prepared to avoid and deal with future attacks, which in turn enhanced their chances of survival. This study shows that such enhanced memorization capacity likely endowed on us by evolution can be exploited for knowledge communication through computer interfaces. A knowledge communication experiment was conducted in which subjects were asked to review Web-based learning modules about International Commercial Terms (Incoterms), and then take a test on what they had learned. Data from six learning modules in two experimental conditions were contrasted. In the treatment condition, a Web-based screen with a snake picture in attack position, displayed together with a hissing background noise, was used to create a simulated threat that surprised the subjects. In the control condition the simulated threat was absent. As expected, based on the evolutionary psychological view that surprise can enhance learning, the subjects in the treatment condition (i.e., with the snake screen) did approximately 28% better than those in the control condition (i.e., without the snake screen) at learning about Incoterms. This improvement occurred only for the two Web-based modules immediately before and after the snake screen. Those two modules comprise what is referred to in this study as the surprise zone. There were no significant differences in learning performance between the two experimental conditions for modules outside the surprise zone.

An Experimental Study of Simulated Web-Based Threats and Their Impact on Knowledge Communication Effectiveness

A study with 186 subjects is described in which a simulated threat was incorporated into a human-computer interface with the goal of increasing the interface's knowledge communication effectiveness. The subjects were asked to review Web-based learning modules about international commercial terms (Incoterms), and subsequently take a test on what they had learned. Data from 6 learning modules in 2 experimental conditions were contrasted. In the treatment condition a Web-based screen with a snake in attack position was used to surprise the subjects; the snake screen was absent in the control condition. As predicted, the subjects in the treatment condition did significantly better in the test for the modules immediately before and after the snake screen than the subjects in the control condition; approximately 18 and 38 percent better, respectively.

R. Chatelain-Jardon

Papers

An Experimental Study of Simulated Web-Based Threats and Their Impact on Knowledge Communication Effectiveness

Using Surprise in Human-Computer Interfaces to Enhance Knowledge Communication Effectiveness