The attraction of leukocytes to tissues is essential for inflammation and the host response to infection. The process is controlled by chemokines, which are chemotactic cytokines. This review introduces the burgeoning family of cytokines, with special emphasis on their role in the pathophysiology of disease and their potential as targets for therapy. Structure and Function of Chemokines Over 40 chemokines have been identified to date, most of them in the past few years. The relations among chemokines were not initially appreciated, which led to an idiosyncratic nomenclature consisting of many acronyms. When initially identified, these proteins had no known biologic . . .

Chemokines — Chemotactic Cytokines That Mediate Inflammation

Homozygous Defect in HIV-1 Coreceptor Accounts for Resistance of Some Multiply-Exposed Individuals to HIV-1 Infection

HIV-1 and related viruses require co-receptors, in addition to CD4, to infect target cells. The chemokine receptor CCR-5 (ref.1) was recently demonstrated to be a co-receptor for macrophage-tropic (M-tropic) HIV-1 strains, and the orphan receptor LESTR (also called fusin) allows infection by strains adapted for growth in transformed T-cell lines (T-tropic strains). Here we show that a mutant allele of CCR-5 is present at a high frequency in caucasian populations (allele frequency, 0.092), but is absent in black populations from Western and Central Africa and Japanese populations. A 32-base-pair deletion within the coding region results in a frame shift, and generates a non-functional receptor that does not support membrane fusion or infection by macrophage- and dual-tropic HIV-1 strains. In a cohort of HIV-1 infected caucasian subjects, no individual homozygous for the mutation was found, and the frequency of heterozygotes was 35% lower than in the general population. White blood cells from an individual homozygous for the null allele were found to be highly resistant to infection by M-tropic HIV-1 viruses, confirming that CCR-5 is the major co-receptor for primary HIV-1 strains. The lower frequency of heterozygotes in seropositive patients may indicate partial resistance.

Resistance to HIV-1 infection in caucasian individuals bearing mutant alleles of the CCR-5 chemokine receptor gene.

The chemokine receptor 5 (CKR5) protein serves as a secondary receptor on CD4 + T lymphocytes for certain strains of human immunodeficiency virus-type 1 (HIV-1). The CKR5 structural gene was mapped to human chromosome 3p21, and a 32-base pair deletion allele ( CKR5Δ32 ) was identified that is present at a frequency of ∼0.10 in the Caucasian population of the United States. An examination of 1955 patients included among six well-characterized acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) cohort studies revealed that 17 deletion homozygotes occurred exclusively among 612 exposed HIV-1 antibody-negative individuals (2.8 percent) and not at all in 1343 HIV-1-infected individuals. The frequency of CKR5 deletion heterozygotes was significantly elevated in groups of individuals that had survived HIV-1 infection for more than 10 years, and, in some risk groups, twice as frequent as their occurrence in rapid progressors to AIDS. Survival analysis clearly shows that disease progression is slower in CKR5 deletion heterozygotes than in individuals homozygous for the normal CKR5 gene. The CKR5Δ32 deletion may act as a recessive restriction gene against HIV-1 infection and may exert a dominant phenotype of delaying progression to AIDS among infected individuals.

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Genetic Restriction of HIV-1 Infection and Progression to AIDS by a Deletion Allele of the CKR5 Structural Gene

DC-SIGN, a dendritic cell-specific HIV-1-binding protein that enhances trans-infection of T cells

Entry of HIV-1 into target cells requires cell-surface CD4 and additional host cell cofactors. A cofactor required for infection with virus adapted for growth in transformed T-cell lines was recently identified and named fusin. However, fusin does not promote entry of macrophage-tropic viruses, which are believed to be the key pathogenic strains in vivo. The principal cofactor for entry mediated by the envelope glycoproteins of primary macrophage-tropic strains of HIV-1 is CC-CKR-5, a receptor for the β-chemokines RANTES, MIP-1α and MIP-1β.

Identification of a major co-receptor for primary isolates of HIV-1

Background: We studied whether comorbid conditions impact strength and duration of immune responses after SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccination in a US-based, adult population. Methods: Sera (pre-and-post-BNT162b2 vaccination) were tested serially up to 6 months after two doses of vaccine for SARS-CoV-2-anti-Spike neutralizing capacity by pseudotyping assay in 91 Veterans and 33 healthcare workers; neutralizing titers were correlated to clinical variables with multivariate regression. In 36 participants, post-booster effect was measured. Results: After completion of the primary vaccine series, neutralizing antibody IC-50 titers were high at one month (14-fold increase from pre-vaccination), declined at six months (3.3-fold increase), and increased at one month post-booster (52.5-fold increase). Age >65 years ({beta}=-0.94, p=0.001) and malignancy ({beta}=-0.88, p=0.002) significantly reduced strength of response at 1 month. Both strength and durability of response at 6 months, respectively, were negatively impacted by end-stage renal disease [({beta}=-1.10, p=0.004); ({beta}=-0.66, p=0.014)], diabetes mellitus [({beta}=-0.57, p=0.032); ({beta}=-0.44, p=0.028)], and systemic steroid use [({beta}=-0.066, p=0.032); ({beta}=-0.55, p=0.037)]. Interestingly, the booster neutralizing antibody titer response was unaffected by clinical factors. Conclusion: Multiple clinical factors impacted the strength and duration of post-vaccination serum neutralizing antibodies in this adult population. Response to the booster dose was universally robust, however. This suggests that the antibody response to the booster dose benefits from a sustained and effective anti-Spike memory immune response.

R E Sutton

Papers

Identification of a major co-receptor for primary isolates of HIV-1

Clinical Variables Correlate with Serum Neutralizing Antibody Titers after COVID-19 mRNA Vaccination in an Adult, US-based Population