Lincoln, Yvonna, and Egon Guba, "Postpositivism and the Naturalist Paradigm," pp. 14-46 in Yvonna Lincoln and Egon Guba, Naturalistic Inquiry . Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1985.*

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Experimental And Quasi Experimental Designs For Research

Dedication Preface Foreword PART I: FRAME OF REFERENCE We begin with the idea of giving students the tools that increase their capacity for learning. The primary role of education is to increase student capacity for personal growth, social growth, and academic learning. Models of Teaching is an avenue to liberate student learning capacity and, by doing so, to help teachers take charge of their lives as teachers. CHAPTER 1: BEGINNING THE INQUIRY Creating Communities of Expert Learners On the whole, students are in schools and classes within those schools. Both need to be developed into learning communities and provided with the models of learning that enable them to become expert learners. We study how to build those learning communities. CHAPTER 2: WHERE MODELS OF TEACHING COME FROM Multiple Ways of Constructing Knowledge The history of teacher researchers comes to us in the form of models of teaching that enable us to construct vital environments for our students. Models have come from the ages and from teacher-researchers who have invented new ways of teaching. Some of these are submitted to research and development and how teachers can learn to use them. Those are the models that are included in this book. CHAPTER 3: STUDYING THE SLOWLY-GROWING KNOWLEDGE BASE IN EDUCATION A Basic Guide Through the Rhetorical Thickets We draw on descriptive studies, experimental studies, and experience to give us a fine beginning to what will eventually become a research-based profession. Here we examine what we have learned about how to design good instruction and effective curriculums. And, we learn how to avoid some destructive practices. CHAPTER 4: MODELS OF TEACHING AND TEACHING STYLES Three Sides of Teaching--Styles, Models, and Diversity We are people and our personalities greatly affect the environments that our students experience. And, as we use various models of teaching our selves -- our natural styles -- color how those models work in the thousands of classrooms in our society. Moreover, those models and our styles affect the achievement of the diverse students in our classes and schools. PART II: THE INFORMATION-PROCESSING FAMILYOF MODELS How can we and our students best acquire information, organize it, and explain it? For thousands of years philosophers, educators, psychologists, and artists have developed ways to gather and process information. Here are several live ones. CHAPTER 5: LEARNING TO THINK INDUCTIVELY Forming Concepts by Collecting and Organizing Information Human beings are born to build concepts. The vast intake of information is sifted and organized and the conceptual structures that guide our lives are developed. The inductive model builds on and enhances the inborn capacity of our students. CHAPTER 6: ATTAINING CONCEPTS Sharpening Basic Thinking Skills Students can develop concepts. They also can learn concepts developed by others. Concept attainment teaches students how to learn and use concepts and develop and test hypotheses. CHAPTER 7: THE PICTURE-WORD INDUCTIVE MODEL Developing Literacy across the Curriculum Built on the language experience approach, the picture-word inductive model enables beginning readers to develop sight vocabularies, learn to inquire into the structure of words and sentences, write sentences and paragraphs, and, thus, to be powerful language learners. In Chapter 19 the outstanding results from primary curriculums and curriculums for older struggling readers are displayed. CHAPTER 8: SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY AND INQUIRY TRAINING The Art of Making Inferences From the time of Aristotle, we have had educators who taught science-in-the-making rather than teaching a few facts and hoping for the best. We introduce you to a model of teaching that is science on the hoof, so to speak. This model has had effects, among other things, on improving the capacity of students to learn. We concentrate on the Biological Sciences Study Group, where for 40 years science teachers have shared information and generated new ideas. And, Inquiry training is a "best yet" model for teaching basic inquiry skills. CHAPTER 9: MEMORIZATION Getting the Facts Straight Memorization has had something of a bad name, mostly because of deadly drills. Contemporary research and innovative teachers have created methods that not only improve our efficiency in memorization, but also make the process delightful. CHAPTER 10: SYNECTICS The Arts of Enhancing Creative Thought Creative thought has often been thought of as the province of a special few, and something that the rest of us cannot aspire to. Not so. Synectics brings to all students the development of metaphoric thinking -- the foundation of creative thought. The model continues to improve. CHAPTER 11: LEARNING FROM PRESENTATIONS Advance Organizers Learning from presentations has almost as bad a name as learning by memorization. Ausubel developed a system for creating lectures and other presentations that will increase learner activity and, subsequently, learning. PART III: THE SOCIAL FAMILY OF MODELS Working together might just enhance all of us. The social family expands what we can do together and generates the creation of democracy in our society in venues large and small. In addition, the creation of learning communities can enhance the learning of all students dramatically. CHAPTER 12: PARTNERS IN LEARNING From Dyads to Group Investigation Can two students who are paired in learning increase their learning? Can students organized into a democratic learning community apply scientific methods to their learning? You bet they can. Group Investigation can be used to redesign schools, increase personal, social, and academic learning among all students, and -- is very satisfying to teach. CHAPTER 13: THE STUDY OF VALUES Role Playing and Public Policy Education Values provide the center of our behavior, helping us get direction and understand other directions. Policy issues involve the understanding of values and the costs and benefits of selecting some solutions rather than others. In these models, values are central. Think for a moment about the issues that face our society right now -- research on cells, international peace, including our roles in Iraq and the rest of the Middle East, the battle against AIDS, poverty, and who controls the decisions about pregnancy and abortion. Not to mention just getting along together. PART IV: THE PERSONAL FAMILY OF MODELS The learner always does the learning. His or her personality is what interacts with the learning environment. How do we give the learner centrality when we are trying to get that same person to grow and respond to tasks we believe will enhance growth? CHAPTER 14: NONDIRECTIVE TEACHING The Learner at the Center How do we think about ourselves as learners? As people? How can we organize schooling so that the personalities and emotions of students are taken into account? Let us inquire into the person who is the center of the education process. CHAPTER 15: DEVELOPING POSITIVE SELF-CONCEPTS The Inner Person of Boys and Girls, Men and Women If you feel great about yourself, you are likely to become a better learner. But you begin where you are. Enhancing self concept is a likely avenue. The wonderful work by the SIMs group in Kansas (see Chapter 3) has demonstrated how much can be accomplished. PART V: THE BEHAVIORAL SYSTEMS FAMILY OF MODELS We are what we do. So how do we learn to practice more productive behaviors? Let's explore some of the possibilities. CHAPTER 16: LEARNING TO LEARN FROM MASTERY LEARNING Bit by bit, block by block, we climb our way up a ladder to mastery. CHAPTER 17: DIRECT INSTRUCTION Why beat around the bush when you can just deal with things directly? Let's go for it! However, finesse is required, and that is what this chapter is all about. CHAPTER 18: LEARNING FROM SIMULATIONS Training and Self-Training How much can we learn from quasi-realities? The answer is, a good deal. Simulations enable us to learn from virtual realities where we can experience environments and problems beyond our present environment. Presently, they range all the way to space travel, thanks to NASA and affiliated developers. PART VI: INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES, DIVERSITY, AND CURRICULUM The rich countryside of humanity makes up the population of our schools. The evidence suggests that diversity enhances the energy of schools and classrooms. However, some forms of teaching make it difficult for individual differences to flourish. We emphasize the curriculums and models of teaching that enable individual differences to thrive. CHAPTER 19: LEARNING STYLES AND MODELS OF TEACHING Making Discomfort Productive By definition, learning requires knowing, thinking, or doing things we couldn't do before the learning took place. Curriculums and teaching need to be shaped to take us where we haven't been. The trick is to develop an optimal mismatch in which we are pushed but the distance is manageable. CHAPTER 20: EQUITY Gender, Ethnicity, and Socioeconomic Background The task here is to enable differences to become an advantage. The best curriculums and models of teaching do just that. In other words, if differences are disadvantages, it is because of how we teach. CHAPTER 21: CREATING AND TESTING CURRICULUMS The Conditions of Learning Robert Gagne's framework for building curriculums is discussed and illustrated. This content is not simple, but it is powerful. CHAPTER 22: TWO WORDS ON THE FUTURE The Promise of Distance Learning and Using Models of Teaching to Ensure that No Child is Left Behind. Afterword APPENDIX PEER COACHING GUIDES Related Literature and References Index

教学模式 = Models of Teaching

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Mindset The New Psychology Of Success

Resiliency In Schools Making It Happen For Students And Educators

The competencies addressed by undergraduate agricultural education programs should be assessed so programs are effective in supplying a well-prepared agriculturaland natural resources-oriented workforce, and so human capital is optimized. In this study, agricultural and natural resources leaders were surveyed to determine the workforce competencies they believed graduates of post-secondary agricultural education programs should have obtained. An Internetbased survey was distributed to graduates of an agricultural leadership development (ALT) group and a natural resources leadership development (NRLT) Group. The highest-rated workforce competency categories for the ALT group were being dependable (n = 103), critical thinking (n = 101), strategic planning (n = 98), and clear communication (n = 98); the highest-rated categories for the NRLT group were active listening (n = 73), clear communication (n = 72), and problem solving skills (n = 72). The personal and leadership skills subscales were not significantly different, but natural resources leaders ranked communication competencies as more important than agricultural leaders. Agricultural educators should evaluate the workforce competencies offered in their undergraduate programs and have deliberate conversations about meeting industry needs to better prepare a future workforce.

/pdf/skills-students-need-in-the-real-world-competencies-desired-3rgzkma9lk.pdf

Skills Students Need in the Real World: Competencies Desired by Agricultural and Natural Resources Industry Leaders.

Educating students with special needs in school based agricultural education (SBAE) is a problem that should be addressed. While many students in SBAE classes have special needs, contradicting research exists establishing the best method of instruction for students with special needs. Inquiry–based instruction shows some promise, but little is known about its effectiveness in SBAE settings for students with special needs. The purpose of this study was to determine if inquiry–based instruction impacts content knowledge achievement for students with special needs. A one–group pretest–posttest, design was used to determine if students with an Individualized Education Plan (IEP) differed in content knowledge achievement from those students without IEPs. No difference in content knowledge achievement was found between students with IEPs and those without over seven pre and post tests using ANCOVA measures. Based on these findings inquiry–based instruction can be an effective method of instruction for students with special needs and should be used when appropriate.

https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ955689.pdf

Inquiry-Based Instruction for Students with Special Needs in School Based Agricultural Education.

The purpose of this study was to assess the perceptions of ATS instructors in Egypt related to implementing experiential learning in the form of internships. In July 2007, 90 ATS instructors attended workshops focused on conducting internship experiences. Self–perceived competency of ATS instructors to implement internships was assessed immediately following inservice training. Approximately a year later (June 2008), ATS instructors’ self–perceived importance and application of internship competencies were assessed. A discrepancy score (Borich, 1980) was also calculated. Results indicated that: (a) at the conclusion of the initial workshop, ATS instructors felt competent to implement internship activities with their students; (b) a year later, ATS instructors felt that all the competencies had high importance, but their ability to apply the competencies was slightly lower; and (c) there were discrepancies on all competencies, with the largest discrepancies focused on explaining internships.

/pdf/assessment-of-egyptian-agricultural-technical-school-443a47r1jf.pdf

Assessment of Egyptian Agricultural Technical School Instructors' Ability to Implement Experiential Learning Activities.

The profession of teaching is inherently stressful. Resilience, or the ability to adapt and develop competence despite exposure to disruptive change, has been shown to be beneficial for teachers. The purpose of this study was to determine if personal resilience is a predictor of professional development engagement and career satisfaction of agriscience teachers. A census of agriscience teachers in four purposefully selected states was taken. Data were collected using the TailoredDesign Method, using multiple points of contact with multiple modes to minimize survey error. The overall response rate was 72.5% (n = 892). The linear combination of independent variables in a stepwise backwards regression model explained 13.7% of the variance of professional development engagement and 21.4% of the variance of career satisfaction. These findings suggested that increasing the resilience of agriscience teachers, specifically in the areas of positive: world and focused, could lead to increased engagement in professional development and career satisfaction, which has been shown to be a factor that increases teacher efficacy. Additional research is needed to explore how to increase the resilience of agriscience teachers and the relationship between teacher resilience and student outcome variables.

/pdf/professional-development-engagement-and-career-satisfaction-4thm1wymbz.pdf

Professional Development Engagement and Career Satisfaction of Agriscience Teachers.

Demands placed on teachers and students continue to increase in order to develop the skills required of the 21 century workforce. There continues to be a need to utilize curriculum and instruction to inspire students to engage in STEM majors and careers. Improving instructional methods and providing opportunities for students to question and problem solve, through the use of inquiry-based instruction (IBI) can increase scientific reasoning abilities. This instructional approach may assist in improving, not only the academic achievement of students, but it may encourage students to plan to attend college and develop potential career aspirations for agriculture and STEM. This research used the scientific reasoning scores from 663 students enrolled nationwide in school-based agricultural education programs (SBAE) to predict students’ likelihood to indicate plans to pursue a career in agriculture, STEM or plan to attend college. The findings reveal scientific reasoning scores predict students’ likelihood to indicate intention to pursue a STEM career and plan to pursue college. Implications from this research suggest SBAE instructors should continue their efforts to incorporate IBI into instruction in order to engage students to think critically and solve real world problems, while exposing students to the skills requisite for STEM major/career access.

/pdf/can-scientific-reasoning-scores-predict-the-likelihood-of-2qj5j2bguq.pdf

Can Scientific Reasoning Scores Predict the Likelihood of SBAE Students' Intent to Pursue a STEM Career, a Career in Agriculture, or Plan to Attend College?.

R. G. Easterly

Papers

Skills Students Need in the Real World: Competencies Desired by Agricultural and Natural Resources Industry Leaders.

Inquiry-Based Instruction for Students with Special Needs in School Based Agricultural Education.

Assessment of Egyptian Agricultural Technical School Instructors' Ability to Implement Experiential Learning Activities.

Professional Development Engagement and Career Satisfaction of Agriscience Teachers.

Can Scientific Reasoning Scores Predict the Likelihood of SBAE Students' Intent to Pursue a STEM Career, a Career in Agriculture, or Plan to Attend College?.