Rabies is a zoonotic, fatal and progressive neurological infection caused by rabies virus of the genus Lyssavirus and family Rhabdoviridae. It affects all warm-blooded animals and the disease is prevalent throughout the world and endemic in many countries except in Islands like Australia and Antarctica. Over 60,000 peoples die every year due to rabies, while approximately 15 million people receive rabies post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) annually. Bite of rabid animals and saliva of infected host are mainly responsible for transmission and wildlife like raccoons, skunks, bats and foxes are main reservoirs for rabies. The incubation period is highly variable from 2 weeks to 6 years (avg. 2-3 months). Though severe neurologic signs and fatal outcome, neuropathological lesions are relatively mild. Rabies virus exploits various mechanisms to evade the host immune responses. Being a major zoonosis, precise and rapid diagnosis is important for early treatment and effective prevention and control measures. Traditional rapid Seller's staining and histopathological methods are still in use for diagnosis of rabies. Direct immunofluoroscent test (dFAT) is gold standard test and most commonly recommended for diagnosis of rabies in fresh brain tissues of dogs by both OIE and WHO. Mouse inoculation test (MIT) and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) are superior and used for routine diagnosis. Vaccination with live attenuated or inactivated viruses, DNA and recombinant vaccines can be done in endemic areas. This review describes in detail about epidemiology, transmission, pathogenesis, advances in diagnosis, vaccination and therapeutic approaches along with appropriate prevention and control strategies.

https://tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/01652176.2017.1343516

Rabies – epidemiology, pathogenesis, public health concerns and advances in diagnosis and control: a comprehensive review

Clinical laboratory advances in the detection of rabies virus.

Duck virus enteritis (DVE), also called duck plague, is one of the major contagious and fatal diseases of ducks, geese and swan. It is caused by duck enteritis virus (DEV)/Anatid herpesvirus-1 of the genus Mardivirus, family Herpesviridae, and subfamily Alpha-herpesvirinae. Of note, DVE has worldwide distribution, wherein migratory waterfowl plays a crucial role in its transmission within and between continents. Furthermore, horizontal and/ or vertical transmission plays a significant role in disease spread through oral-fecal discharges. Either of sexes from varying age groups of ducks is vulnerable to DVE. The disease is characterized by sudden death, vascular damage and subsequent internal hemorrhage, lesions in lymphoid organs, digestive mucosal eruptions, severe diarrhea and degenerative lesions in parenchymatous organs. Huge economic losses are connected with acute nature of the disease, increased morbidity and mortality (5%–100%), condemnations of carcasses, decreased egg production and hatc...

https://tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/01652176.2017.1298885

Duck virus enteritis (duck plague) - a comprehensive update.

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.



Major funding for the project in Institut Pasteur was provided by the Institut Pasteur International Network with Actions Concertees InterPasteuriennes 2003/687 and 2006/562. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

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More accurate insight into the incidence of human rabies in developing countries through validated laboratory techniques.

Rapid diagnosis of rabies in humans and animals by a dot blot enzyme immunoassay.

A comparison between Direct Immunofluorescence Test, (FAT) and Rapid Rabies Enzyme Immunodiagnosis test (RREID) was made to detect rabies viral antigens from the brain and salivary gland tissues of experimentally infected and in rabies suspected dogs. Both the tests presented an efficiency level of 100 per cent and both are equally sensitive.

Comparison of Enzyme Immunodiagnosis with Immuofluorescence for Rapid Diagnosis of Rabies in Dogs

A dipstick Dot enzyme immuno diagnosis test was standardized to detect rabies viral antigens from brain, of rabies-suspected dogs, cattle, horses, cats and goats. This test was compared with the direct fluorescent antibody test (FAT). When compared to the direct FAT, the dipstick dot ELISA test did not produce non-specific false-positive results and was therefore specific and reliable. The advantages of the dipstick Dot-ELISA are discussed.

A dipstick dot enzyme immunoassay for detection of rabies antigen.

Studies on cell-mediated immune response to rabies virus immunization in dogs.

A modified enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (Dot ELISA) is described for visual detection of rabies antigen in animals. The test materials were dotted onto the nitrocellulose paper and allowed to react with rabies antiserum. The bound antigen—anti-body were reacted with a peroxidase conjugated antirabbit immunoglobulin. Positive reactions were easily visualized as brown dots after enzyme degradation of the substrate. A total of 400 specimens from various geographical locations were tested with the dot ELISA technique, and also with the fluorescent antibody test (FAT), which was used as a reference method. The concordance between the two tests was 95.25%. The dot ELISA may have potential applications as a rapid, simple and economical field test in the diagnosis of rabies.

A dot enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (dot ELISA): Comparison with standard fluorescent antibody test (FAT) for the diagnosis of rabies in animals

An avidin-biotin dot ELISA test was standardized to detect rabies viral antigens from the brain of rabies-suspected animals. This test was compared with the direct fluorescent antibody test (FAT). The advantages of the avidin-biotin dot ELISA are discussed. The incorporation of avidin-biotin into a conventional ELISA is a step forward in improving the available rabies antigen detection procedures as this technique is more sensitive, highly specific and exploits the great affinity of avidin for biotin. No significant difference was observed between FAT and avidin-biotin dot ELISA.

R. Jayakumar

Papers

Comparison of Enzyme Immunodiagnosis with Immuofluorescence for Rapid Diagnosis of Rabies in Dogs

A dipstick dot enzyme immunoassay for detection of rabies antigen.

Studies on cell-mediated immune response to rabies virus immunization in dogs.

A dot enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (dot ELISA): Comparison with standard fluorescent antibody test (FAT) for the diagnosis of rabies in animals

Detection of Rabies Virus Antigen in Animals by Avidin-Biotin Dot ELISA