Energy production and storage technologies have attracted a great deal of attention for day-to-day applications. In recent decades, advances in lithium-ion battery (LIB) technology have improved living conditions around the globe. LIBs are used in most mobile electronic devices as well as in zero-emission electronic vehicles. However, there are increasing concerns regarding load leveling of renewable energy sources and the smart grid as well as the sustainability of lithium sources due to their limited availability and consequent expected price increase. Therefore, whether LIBs alone can satisfy the rising demand for small- and/or mid-to-large-format energy storage applications remains unclear. To mitigate these issues, recent research has focused on alternative energy storage systems. Sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) are considered as the best candidate power sources because sodium is widely available and exhibits similar chemistry to that of LIBs; therefore, SIBs are promising next-generation alternatives. Recently, sodiated layer transition metal oxides, phosphates and organic compounds have been introduced as cathode materials for SIBs. Simultaneously, recent developments have been facilitated by the use of select carbonaceous materials, transition metal oxides (or sulfides), and intermetallic and organic compounds as anodes for SIBs. Apart from electrode materials, suitable electrolytes, additives, and binders are equally important for the development of practical SIBs. Despite developments in electrode materials and other components, there remain several challenges, including cell design and electrode balancing, in the application of sodium ion cells. In this article, we summarize and discuss current research on materials and propose future directions for SIBs. This will provide important insights into scientific and practical issues in the development of SIBs.

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Sodium-ion batteries: present and future

This comprehensive Review focuses on the key challenges and recent progress regarding sodium-metal anodes employed in sodium-metal batteries (SMBs) The metal anode is the essential component of emerging energy storage systems such as sodium sulfur and sodium selenium, which are discussed as example full-cell applications We begin with a description of the differences in the chemical and physical properties of Na metal versus the oft-studied Li metal, and a corresponding discussion regarding the number of ways in which Na does not follow Li-inherited paradigms in its electrochemical behavior We detail the major challenges for Na-metal systems that at this time limit the feasibility of SMBs The core Na anode problems are the following interrelated degradation mechanisms: An unstable solid electrolyte interphase with most organic electrolytes, "mossy" and "lath-like" metal dendrite growth for liquid systems, poor Coulombic efficiency, and gas evolution Even solid-state Na batteries are not immune, with metal dendrites being reported The solutions may be subdivided into the following interrelated taxonomy: Improved electrolytes and electrolyte additives tailored for Na-metal anodes, interfacial engineering between the metal and the liquid or solid electrolyte, electrode architectures that both reduce the current density during plating-stripping and serve as effective hosts that shield the Na metal from excessive reactions, and alloy design to tune the bulk properties of the metal per se For instance, stable plating-stripping of Na is extremely difficult with conventional carbonate solvents but has been reported with ethers and glymes Solid-state electrolytes (SSEs) such as beta-alumina solid electrolyte (BASE), sodium superionic conductor (NASICON), and sodium thiophosphate (75Na2S·25P2S5) present highly exciting opportunities for SMBs that avoid the dangers of flammable liquids Even SSEs are not immune to dendrites, however, which grow through the defects in the bulk pellet, but may be controlled through interfacial energy modification We conclude with a discussion of the key research areas that we feel are the most fruitful for further pursuit In our opinion, greatly improved understanding and control of the SEI structure is the key to cycling stability A holistic approach involving complementary post-mortem, in situ, and operando analyses to elucidate full battery cell level structure-performance relations is advocated

Sodium Metal Anodes: Emerging Solutions to Dendrite Growth

Electrolyte design or functional development is very effective at promoting the performance of sodium-ion batteries, which are attractive for electrochemical energy storage devices due to abundant sodium resources and low cost. This review discusses recent advances on electrolytes for sodium-ion batteries and comprehensive electrolyte design strategies for various materials systems as well as functional applications. The discussion is divided into three electrolyte types: liquid, solid state, and gel state. Liquid electrolytes are further divided into different solvent types, including organic carbonate ester, ether, ionic liquid, and water. Solid-state electrolytes also contain two types: solid polymer and glass–ceramic composite. The challenges and prospects of electrolytes for sodium-ion batteries are discussed as well.

Electrolyte design strategies and research progress for room-temperature sodium-ion batteries

Owing to the excellent abundance and availability of sodium reserves, sodium ion batteries (NIBs) show great promise for meeting the material supply and cost demands of large-scale energy storage systems (ESSs) used for the application of renewable energy sources and smart grids. However, the cost advantages of stationary NIBs alone are not enough to ensure their commercial success. In this review, we summarize the emerging attractive characteristics of stationary NIBs, such as high-rate capability, all-climate operation, and full-battery recyclability. Together with inherent cost advantages, these merits have resulted in an excellent compatibility between stationary NIBs and large-scale ESSs that dictates their validity in practical applications. Representative electrode materials are highlighted to illustrate advances in corresponding features. The insights presented in this review can inspire further research interest into NIB design and serve as a guide for the application of NIBs in large-scale stationary energy storage.

Exploring competitive features of stationary sodium ion batteries for electrochemical energy storage

The consumption of fossil fuel and emisssion of CO2 have caused serious environmental issues, giving rise to growing demand for clean and sustainable energy.[1] Therefore, significant attempts have been made to pursue high-power and highenergy power source devices in the past decades. Among them, Considering the natural abundance and low cost of sodium resources, sodiumion batteries (SIBs) have received much attention for large-scale electrochemical energy storage. However, smart structure design strategies and good mechanistic understanding are required to enable advanced SIBs with high energy density. In recent years, the exploration of advanced cathode, anode, and electrolyte materials, as well as advanced diagnostics have been extensively carried out. This review mainly focuses on the challenging problems for the attractive battery materials (i.e., cathode, anode, and electrolytes) and summarizes the latest strategies to improve their electrochemical performance as well as presenting recent progress in operando diagnostics to disclose the physics behind the electrochemical performance and to provide guidance and approaches to design and synthesize advanced battery materials. Outlook and perspectives on the future research to build better SIBs are also provided. Sodium-Ion Batteries

Challenges in Developing Electrodes, Electrolytes, and Diagnostics Tools to Understand and Advance Sodium-Ion Batteries

Current trends and future challenges of electrolytes for sodium-ion batteries

Research and development efforts on sodium-ion batteries are gaining momentum due to their potential to accommodate high energy density coupled with relatively lower cost in comparison with lithium-ion batteries. In order for the sodium-ion batteries to be commercially viable, high performance electrolytes with acceptable ambient temperature ionic conductivity and wider electrochemical stability windows are being developed. A bibliometric analysis of the publications on various types of Na+ ion conducting electrolytes since 1990 shows a total of 200 + publications and reveals an exponential growth in the last few years, due to reasons that the sodium-ion systems promise great potential as the future large scale power sources for variety of applications. This review consolidates the status of liquid (non-aqueous, aqueous and ionic), polymer gel and solid (ceramics, glasses, and solid polymers) electrolytes and discusses their ionic conductivity, thermal characteristics, electrochemical stability and viscosity towards applications in sodium-ion batteries. Among various types available, the non-aqueous solvent based electrolyte is the most promising one in terms of ionic conductivity even though it is flammable. Copyright (C) 2015, Hydrogen Energy Publications, LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

R. Kushagra

Papers

Current trends and future challenges of electrolytes for sodium-ion batteries

Current Trends and Future Challenges of Electrolytes for Sodium-Ion Batteries