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Flow The Psychology Of Optimal Experience

In this paper, we review algorithmic bias in education, discussing the causes of that bias and reviewing the empirical literature on the specific ways that algorithmic bias is known to have manifested in education. While other recent work has reviewed mathematical definitions of fairness and expanded algorithmic approaches to reducing bias, our review focuses instead on solidifying the current understanding of the concrete impacts of algorithmic bias in education—which groups are known to be impacted and which stages and agents in the development and deployment of educational algorithms are implicated. We discuss theoretical and formal perspectives on algorithmic bias, connect those perspectives to the machine learning pipeline, and review metrics for assessing bias. Next, we review the evidence around algorithmic bias in education, beginning with the most heavily-studied categories of race/ethnicity, gender, and nationality, and moving to the available evidence of bias for less-studied categories, such as socioeconomic status, disability, and military-connected status. Acknowledging the gaps in what has been studied, we propose a framework for moving from unknown bias to known bias and from fairness to equity. We discuss obstacles to addressing these challenges and propose four areas of effort for mitigating and resolving the problems of algorithmic bias in AIED systems and other educational technology.

Algorithmic Bias in Education

In recent years, emotion recognition algorithms have achieved high efficiency, allowing the development of various affective and affect-aware applications. This advancement has taken place mainly in the environment of personal computers offering the appropriate hardware and sufficient power to process complex data from video, audio, and other channels. However, the increase in computing and communication capabilities of smartphones, the variety of their built-in sensors, as well as the availability of cloud computing services have made them an environment in which the task of recognising emotions can be performed at least as effectively. This is possible and particularly important due to the fact that smartphones and other mobile devices have become the main computer devices used by most people. This article provides a systematic overview of publications from the last 10 years related to emotion recognition methods using smartphone sensors. The characteristics of the most important sensors in this respect are presented, and the methods applied to extract informative features on the basis of data read from these input channels. Then, various machine learning approaches implemented to recognise emotional states are described.

A Review of Emotion Recognition Methods Based on Data Acquired via Smartphone Sensors.

Despite the recent success in probabilistic modeling and their applications, generative models trained using traditional inference techniques struggle to adapt to new distributions, even when the target distribution may be closely related to the ones seen during training. In this work, we present a doubly-amortized variational inference procedure as a way to address this challenge. By sharing computation across not only a set of query inputs, but also a set of different, related probabilistic models, we learn transferable latent representations that generalize across several related distributions. In particular, given a set of distributions over images, we find the learned representations to transfer to different data transformations. We empirically demonstrate the effectiveness of our method by introducing the MetaVAE, and show that it significantly outperforms baselines on downstream image classification tasks on MNIST (10-50%) and NORB (10-35%).

Meta-Amortized Variational Inference and Learning

Gathering labeled data in educational data mining (EDM) is a time and cost intensive task. However, the amount of available training data directly influences the quality of predictive models. Unlabeled data, on the other hand, is readily available in high volumes from intelligent tutoring systems and massive open online courses. In this paper, we present a semi-supervised classification pipeline that makes effective use of this unlabeled data to significantly improve model quality. We employ deep variational auto-encoders to learn efficient feature embeddings that improve the performance for standard classifiers by up to 28% compared to completely supervised training. Further, we demonstrate on two independent data sets that our method outperforms previous methods for finding efficient feature embeddings and generalizes better to imbalanced data sets compared to expert features. Our method is data independent and classifier-agnostic, and hence provides the ability to improve performance on a variety of classification tasks in EDM.

http://educationaldatamining.org/EDM2017/proc_files/papers/paper_59.pdf

Efficient Feature Embeddings for Student Classification with Variational Auto-Encoders.

Gaining awareness of the user's affective states enables smartphones to support enriched interactions that are sensitive to the user's context. To accomplish this on smartphones, we propose a system that analyzes the user's text typing behavior using a semi-supervised deep learning pipeline for predicting affective states measured by valence, arousal, and dominance. Using a data collection study with 70 participants on text conversations designed to trigger different affective responses, we developed a variational auto-encoder to learn efficient feature embeddings of two-dimensional heat maps generated from touch data while participants engaged in these conversations. Using the learned embedding in a cross-validated analysis, our system predicted three levels (low, medium, high) of valence (AUC up to 0.84), arousal (AUC up to 0.82), and dominance (AUC up to 0.82). These results demonstrate the feasibility of our approach to accurately predict affective states based only on touch data.

/pdf/affective-state-prediction-based-on-semi-supervised-learning-22xkngj5d3.pdf

Affective State Prediction Based on Semi-Supervised Learning from Smartphone Touch Data

The role of affective states in learning has recently attracted considerable attention in education research. The accurate prediction of affective states can help increase the learning gain by incorporating targeted interventions that are capable of adjusting to changes in the individual affective states of students. Until recently, most work on the prediction of affective states has relied on expensive and stationary lab devices that are not well suited for classrooms and everyday use. Here, we present an automated pipeline capable of accurately predicting (AUC up to 0.86) the affective states of participants solving tablet-based math tasks using signals from low-cost mobile bio-sensors. In addition, we show that we can achieve a similar classification performance (AUC up to 0.84) by only using handwriting data recorded from a stylus while students solved the math tasks. Given the emerging digitization of classrooms and increased reliance on tablets as teaching tools, stylus data may be a viable alternative to bio-sensors for the prediction of affective states.

/pdf/affective-state-prediction-in-a-mobile-setting-using-2q9kcx75st.pdf

Affective State Prediction in a Mobile Setting using Wearable Biometric Sensors and Stylus

Knowledge of users’ affective states can improve their interaction with smartphones by providing more personalized experiences (e.g., search results and news articles). We present an affective state classification model based on data gathered on smartphones in real-world environments. From touch events during keystrokes and the signals from the inertial sensors, we extracted two-dimensional heat maps as input into a convolutional neural network to predict the affective states of smartphone users. For evaluation, we conducted a data collection in the wild with 82 participants over 10 weeks. Our model accurately predicts three levels (low, medium, high) of valence (AUC up to 0.83), arousal (AUC up to 0.85), and dominance (AUC up to 0.84). We also show that using the inertial sensor data alone, our model achieves a similar performance (AUC up to 0.83), making our approach less privacy-invasive. By personalizing our model to the user, we show that performance increases by an additional 0.07 AUC.

/pdf/affective-state-prediction-from-smartphone-touch-and-sensor-3q7m82q7.pdf

Rafael Wampfler

Papers

Efficient Feature Embeddings for Student Classification with Variational Auto-Encoders.

Affective State Prediction Based on Semi-Supervised Learning from Smartphone Touch Data

Affective State Prediction in a Mobile Setting using Wearable Biometric Sensors and Stylus

Affective State Prediction from Smartphone Touch and Sensor Data in the Wild

Efﬁcient Feature Embeddings for Student Classiﬁcation with Variational Auto-encoders