Changes in monsoon rainfall are caused by human-produced aerosols slowing the tropical atmospheric circulation. Observations show that South Asia underwent a widespread summertime drying during the second half of the 20th century, but it is unclear whether this trend was due to natural variations or human activities. We used a series of climate model experiments to investigate the South Asian monsoon response to natural and anthropogenic forcings. We find that the observed precipitation decrease can be attributed mainly to human-influenced aerosol emissions. The drying is a robust outcome of a slowdown of the tropical meridional overturning circulation, which compensates for the aerosol-induced energy imbalance between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. These results provide compelling evidence of the prominent role of aerosols in shaping regional climate change over South Asia.

Anthropogenic aerosols and the weakening of the South Asian summer monsoon

Abstract. Carbonaceous aerosols affect the radiative balance of the Earth by absorbing and scattering light. While black carbon (BC) is highly absorbing, some organic carbon (OC) also has significant absorption, especially at near-ultraviolet and blue wavelengths. To the extent that OC absorbs visible light, it may be a non-negligible contributor to positive direct aerosol radiative forcing. Quantification of that absorption is necessary so that radiative-transfer models can evaluate the net radiative effect of OC. In this work, we examine absorption by primary OC emitted from solid fuel pyrolysis. We provide absorption spectra of this material, which can be related to the imaginary refractive index. This material has polar character but is not fully water-soluble: more than 92% was extractable by methanol or acetone, compared with 73% for water and 52% for hexane. Water-soluble OC contributes to light absorption at both ultraviolet and visible wavelengths. However, a larger portion of the absorption comes from OC that is extractable only by methanol. Absorption spectra of water-soluble OC are similar to literature reports. We compare spectra for material generated with different wood type, wood size and pyrolysis temperature. Higher wood temperature is the main factor creating OC with higher absorption; changing wood temperature from a devolatilizing state of 210 °C to a near-flaming state of 360 °C causes about a factor of four increase in mass-normalized absorption at visible wavelengths. A clear-sky radiative transfer model suggests that, despite the absorption, both high-temperature and low-temperature OC result in negative top-of-atmosphere radiative forcing over a surface with an albedo of 0.19 and positive radiative forcing over bright surfaces. Unless absorption by real ambient aerosol is higher than that measured here, it probably affects global average clear-sky forcing very little, but could be important in energy balances over bright surfaces.

Light Absorption by Organic Carbon From Wood Combustion

Abstract. Organic aerosol (OA) represents approximately half of the submicron aerosol in Mexico City and the Central Mexican Plateau. This study uses the high time resolution measurements performed onboard the NCAR/NSF C-130 aircraft during the MILAGRO/MIRAGE-Mex field campaign in March 2006 to investigate the sources and chemical processing of the OA in this region. An examination of the OA/ΔCO ratio evolution as a function of photochemical age shows distinct behavior in the presence or absence of substantial open biomass burning (BB) influence, with the latter being consistent with other studies in polluted areas. In addition, we present results from Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) analysis of 12-s High-Resolution Time-of-Flight Aerosol Mass Spectrometer (HR-ToF-AMS) OA spectra. Four components were resolved. Three of the components contain substantial organic oxygen and are termed semivolatile oxygenated OA (SV-OOA), low-volatility OOA (LV-OOA), and biomass burning OA (BBOA). A reduced "hydrocarbon-like OA" (HOA) component is also resolved. LV-OOA is highly oxygenated (atomic O/C~1) and is aged organic aerosol linked to regional airmasses, with likely contributions from pollution, biomass burning, and other sources. SV-OOA is strongly correlated with ammonium nitrate, Ox, and the Mexico City Basin. We interpret SV-OOA as secondary OA which is nearly all (>90%) anthropogenic in origin. In the absence of biomass burning it represents the largest fraction of OA over the Mexico City basin, consistent with other studies in this region. BBOA is identified as arising from biomass burning sources due to a strong correlation with HCN, and the elevated contribution of the ion C2H4O2+ (m/z 60, a marker for levoglucosan and other primary BB species). WRF-FLEXPART calculated fire impact factors (FIF) show good correlation with BBOA mass concentrations within the basin, but show location offsets in the far field due to model transport errors. This component is small or absent when forest fires are suppressed by precipitation. Since PMF factors represent organic species grouped by chemical similarity, additional postprocessing is needed to more directly apportion OA amounts to sources, which is done here based on correlations to different tracers. The postprocessed AMS results are similar to those from an independent source apportionment based on multiple linear regression with gas-phase tracers. During a flight with very high forest fire intensity near the basin OA arising from open BB represents ~66% of the OA mass in the basin and contributes similarly to OA mass in the outflow. Aging and SOA formation of BB emissions is estimated to add OA mass equivalent to about ~32–42% of the primary BBOA over several hours to a day.

Investigation of the Sources and Processing of Organic Aerosol over the Central Mexican Plateau from Aircraft Measurements during MILAGRO

Radio Emission of the Sun and Planets By V. V. Zheleznyakov. Translated By H. S. H. Massey. Edited By J. S. Hey. (International Series of Monographs in Natural Philosophy, Vol. 25.). Pp. xiv + 697. (Pergamon Press: Oxford, London and New York, February 1970.) 300s; $40.

/pdf/solar-radio-astronomy-269f4m2qso.pdf

Solar Radio Astronomy

[1] Observations of tweeks with higher harmonics (n > 1) at low latitude stations Allahabad and Nainital, in the Indian sector, during the total solar eclipse on 22 July 2009, are presented. Allahabad and Nainital stations were in 100% and 85% of the totality paths. Observations suggest that about 30–40% obscuration of solar disc can lead to the tweeks occurrence which otherwise occur only in nighttime. A total of 148 tweeks at Allahabad and 20 tweeks at Nainital were recorded with some of them up to 3rd harmonics. The World Wide Lightning Location Network data indicated that tweeks observed were generated by lightning's located in the partial eclipse area of Asia-Oceania region. The changes in D-region ionospheric VLF reflection height and electron density (∼22–23 cm−3) during eclipse have been estimated from the first cut-off frequency of the tweeks. The reflection height increased from ∼89 km from the first occurrence of tweek to about 91–92 km at the totality and then decreased to ∼87 km at the end of the eclipse, suggesting a change of about 5 km in the reflection height during eclipse. The reflection heights are lower by 2–3 km as compared to normal nighttime tweek reflection heights. The above increase in the reflection height indicate that the partial nighttime condition is created during eclipse, as the main D-region ionizing radiation Lyman α is blocked but solar soft X-ray and EUV radiations originating from the limb solar corona are not totally blocked which produce some of ionization in the D-region.

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D-region ionosphere response to the total solar eclipse of 22 July 2009 deduced from ELF-VLF tweek observations in the Indian sector

[1] Changes in equatorial D-region electron density are studied using subionospherically propagating VLF signal at 18.2 kHz over a distance of 2200 km during the total solar eclipse of 22 July 2009. There are very few studies about the eclipse's effects on the equatorial lower ionosphere in the scientific literature. In the light of that, the objective of the present work is to study the effects of the eclipse on the dynamics of the equatorial lower ionosphere during ionospheric sunrise transition period. In the present case, great circle path between VLF transmitter and receiver falls totally in partial eclipse zone, having a maximum solar obscuration of 90% and an average obscuration of 74%. Results show an average decrease of 3.2 dB in signal strength compared to control days during peak solar obscuration over the path. A comparison with previous studies shows an increase both in lower ionosphere virtual reflection height (H′) and Wait inverse scale height parameter (β); the values estimated are 74.5 km and 0.46 km−1 compared to unperturbed ionosphere values of 71 km and 0.43 km−1, respectively. During maximum eclipse over the path, the model profile shows an average 80% drop in electron density at a height of 71 km at equatorial lower ionosphere. A nonlinear variation of lower ionosphere electron density with solar radiation is found as opposed to the model study proposed by previous workers.

https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/2009JA015101

Response of the equatorial lower ionosphere to the total solar eclipse of 22 July 2009 during sunrise transition period studied using VLF signal

The study of anomalous variations in the near-surface atmospheric vertical electric field (VEF) that have the form of bay-like depressions in strength have been used as precursors of earthquakes in various studies. We present here the first statistical report from an earthquake-prone zone in northeast India from July 2009 to July 2012. The 10 days that were meteorologically fair and with earthquake occurrences were selected for the present analysis. The average VEF bay durations and depths were ca. 50 min to 70 min, with the corresponding magnitudes of 500 Vm -1 to 800 Vm -1 . Anomalous variation in VEF before 7 to 12 hour of the impending earthquake has been observed. There was a 31% probability that a VEF bay would show as an earthquake precursor. The positive correlation coefficient was 0.72 between the VEF bay depth and the ratio of earthquake magnitude to depth, while the negative correlation coefficient of 0.82 was calculated between VEF bay duration and the ratio of earthquake magnitude to depth. There was moderate correlation for distance of the earthquake epicenter to the observation point with both VEF bay depth and VEF bay duration. The correlation of the time difference of VEF variations and earthquakes with VEF bay depth was good, whereas the correlation of the time difference of VEF variations and earthquakes with VEF bay duration was too low to be considered.

/pdf/a-statistical-study-on-precursory-effects-of-earthquakes-18qgwqus42.pdf

A statistical study on precursory effects of earthquakes observed through the atmospheric vertical electric field in northeast India

[1] Effects of solar eclipses on the propagation characteristics of worldwide VLF sferics from lightning activity require more investigation. An attempt was made on the occasion of two solar eclipses during 22nd July, 2009 and 15th January, 2010 to study the effects of the two eclipses on the propagation characteristics of VLF sferics in the Earth-ionosphere waveguide. Identical experimental setups were used to study the VLF sferics during the two eclipse events. The spectral character of VLF sferics propagating inside the waveguide is studied at a fixed receiver location (23.75°N, 91.25°E) at six discrete frequencies in between 3 and 20 kHz. During both the eclipse events, it is observed that VLF sferics at all the six discrete frequencies is increased from the mean normal average ambient level. The increment peaks around 10–12 kHz with an overall increment of 6.4 dB with respect to its ambient level. The VLF spectral character of enhancement of sferics show similar characters in two eclipses. The percentage decrease in electron density using standard modeling equations is found to be 90% at the height of 71 km for both the eclipses, supporting linear variation of electron density with solar radiation at the D-region of the ionosphere. The results are explained qualitatively on the basis of a decrease in electron density at the lower ionosphere modifying the reflection coefficient which affected the propagation of VLF sferics in Earth-ionosphere waveguide during eclipsed condition.

https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/2011JA017498

Spectral character of VLF sferics propagating inside the Earth-ionosphere waveguide during two recent solar eclipses

There are several reports of simultaneous optical flashes as well as audible sounds called electrophonics during the passage of meteors through the Earth’s atmosphere, but the exact physical mechanism behind these phenomena is still poorly understood. Some experiments performed during meteor showers indicate the presence of ELF-VLF electromagnetic waves generated simultaneously with the passage of a meteor, which after suitable transduction are converted into audible sound waves. In this context, the present paper investigates the temporal and spectral character of ELF electromagnetic waves produced during the Leonid meteor shower on 18th November, 2009. A well calibrated broadband GPS locked software receiver was used to perform the experiment at the Department of Physics, Tripura University, India (23.50° N 91.25° E). The analysis of temporal data and dynamic spectrogram reveals distinct electromagnetic pulses in the frequency range of a few Hz to 2 kHz during the predicted time of peak activity of the shower. The spectral character of these pulses is found to be completely different from the spectral signatures originating from lightning discharges. During the peak activity period, the meteor counts using ELF method is found to be around 11,000 meteors hr−1, which is around 137 times more than the worldwide reported visible rate. The observational results are discussed from the viewpoint of deposition of meteoric dust particles and its interaction with ionospheric plasma, leading to emission of electromagnetic waves during the passage of meteors through the Earth’s atmosphere.

Rakesh Roy

Papers

Response of the equatorial lower ionosphere to the total solar eclipse of 22 July 2009 during sunrise transition period studied using VLF signal

A statistical study on precursory effects of earthquakes observed through the atmospheric vertical electric field in northeast India

Spectral character of VLF sferics propagating inside the Earth-ionosphere waveguide during two recent solar eclipses

Investigation on spectral character of ELF electromagnetic radiations during Leonid 2009 meteor shower

Investigation of curvature effect of Ångström exponent to classify the aerosol types over the region of interest (88°-98° E and 20°-30° N)