Mitochondria are semi-autonomous organelles which are endowed with the ability to change their shape (e.g., by elongation, shortening, branching, buckling, swelling) and their location inside a living cell. In addition they may fuse or divide. These dynamics are discussed. Dislocation of mitochondria may result from their interaction with elements of the cytoskeleton, with microtubules in particular, and from processes intrinsic to the mitochondria themselves. Morphological criteria and differences in the fate of some mitochondria argue for the presence of more than one mitochondrial population in some animal cells. Whether these reflect genetic differences remains obscure. Emphasis is laid on the methods for visualizing mitochondria in cells and following their behaviour. Fluorescence methods provide unique possibilities because of their high resolving power and because some of the mitochondria-specific fluorochromes can be used to reveal the membrane potential. Fusion and fission often occur in short time intervals within the same group of mitochondria. At sites of fusion of two mitochondria material of the inner membrane, the matrix compartment seems to accumulate. The original arrangement of the fusion partners is maintained for some minutes. Fission is a dynamic event which, like fusion, in most cases observed in vertebrate cell cultures is not a straight forward process but rather requires several "trials" until the division finally occurs. Regarding fusion and fission hitherto unpublished phase contrast micrographs, and electron micrographs have been included.

Dynamics of mitochondria in living cells: Shape changes, dislocations, fusion, and fission of mitochondria

Swelling of primary astrocyte cultures by exposing them to hypotonic media caused release of label after the cells had been allowed to accumulate 3H-L-glutamate, 3H-D-aspartate, or 3H-taurine. Comparable release of endogenous L-glutamate or taurine, as measured by high- pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC), was also found. Release of label was not affected by treating the cells with cytochalasin B, indicating that microfilament polymerization was not significantly involved. Hypotonic-induced release did not appear to principally involve reversal of the Na(+)-dependent uptake system since increasing external K+ to depolarize the cells by replacement of external Na+, thus maintaining isotonic conditions, increased release to a lesser extent. Threo beta-hydroxyaspartate, a potent 3H-L-glutamate uptake blocker, added externally stimulated efflux of 3H-L-glutamate independently of the swelling-induced efflux. Upon restoration of swollen cells to isotonic medium they showed an unimpaired ability to take up 3H-L- glutamate. The swelling-induced release of label was inhibited by a number of anion transport inhibitors, one of which has been shown to significantly improve outcome in an experimental brain trauma/hypoxia model in which astrocyte swelling is an early event.

https://www.jneurosci.org/content/jneuro/10/5/1583.full.pdf

Swelling-induced release of glutamate, aspartate, and taurine from astrocyte cultures

Role of glial cells in the regulation of the brain ion microenvironment

Astrocytes in culture regulate their volume under anisosmotic conditions by as yet unclear mechanisms. In a number of other cells this process involves a loss of intracellular osmotically active solutes, including taurine. The possibility that taurine participates as an osmoeffector in astrocytes was examined in cultured astrocytes exposed to hyposmolar conditions. Astrocytes responded to decreases in osmolarity by rapid swelling followed by a volume regulatory phase. Hyposmotic conditions induced a dramatic increase of 3H-taurine efflux, with a time course corresponding to the cell volume regulatory phase. Decreasing osmolarity from 310 to 254, 198 or 150 m osmoles resulted in the release of 8.2%, 17%, and 54%, respectively, of 3H-taurine previously accumulated by astrocytes. Endogenous taurine concentration decreased 64%. The efflux of 3-H GABA, 3H-glycine, or 3H-D-aspartate was much less affected under similar conditions. These results suggest a role for taurine as an osmoeffector in astrocytes.

Volume regulation in astrocytes: a role for taurine as an osmoeffector.

Lactate released into the surrounding salt solution as well as the cellular lactate content were measured in cerebral primary cultures of mouse astrocytes and of mouse neurons. Any newly produced lactate was immediately released as lactic acid into the extracellular compartment via a lactate/proton cotransport. The astrocytic release was about 2,000 nmol x mg-1 x hr-1; the neuronal release was about 300 nmol x mg-1 x hr-1. However, if election transport was blocked with dinitrophenol, the neuronal lactate release was as high as the astrocytic one under normal conditions. High glucose (30 mM) and K+ (60 mM) increased lactate release of astrocytes but not of neurons. In contrast it was found that insulin (1 microM) exposure mainly stimulated neuronal lactate release rather than glial release. Adenosine stimulated both neuronal and glial release. Neither intracellular lactate content nor concentration changed significantly in either cell type under any conditions tested. The pathophysiological implications of these measurements are discussed.

Lactate release from cultured astrocytes and neurons: A comparison

Cell volume regulation and energy metabolism were studied in primary cultured cerebral astrocytes during exposure to media of altered osmolarity. Cells suspended in medium containing 1/2 the normal concentration of NaCl (hypoosmotic) swell immediately to a volume 40–50% larger than cells suspended in isoosmotic medium. The cell volume in hypoosmotic medium then decreases over 30 min to a volume approximately 25% larger than cells in isoosmotic medium. In hyperosmotic medium (containing twice the normal concentration of NaCl), astrocytes shrink by 29%. Little volume change occurs following this initial shrinkage. Cells resuspended in isoosmotic medium after a 30 min incubation in hypoosmotic medium shrink immediately to a volume 10% less than the volume of cells incubated continuously in isoosmotic medium. Thus, the regulatory volume decrease (RVD) in hypoosmotic medium involves a net reduction of intracellular osmoles. The RVD is partially blocked by inhibitors of mitochondrial electron transport but is unaffected by an inhibitor of glycolysis or by an uncoupler of oxidative phosphorylation. Inhibition of RVD by these metabolic agents is correlated with decreased cellular ATP levels. Ouabain, added immediately after hypoosmotic induced swelling, completely inhibits RVD, but does not alter cell volume if added after RVD has taken place. Ouabain also inhibits cell respiration 27% more in hypoosmotic medium than in isoosmotic medium indicating that the (Na, K)-ATPase-coupled ion pump is more active in the hypoosmotic medium. These data suggest that the cell volume response of astrocytes in hypoosmotic medium involves the net movement of osmoles by a mechanism dependent on cellular energy and tightly coupled to the (Na, K)-ATPase ion pump. This process may be important in the energy-dependent osmoregulation in the brain, a critical role attributed to the astrocyte in vivo.

Energy-dependent volume regulation in primary cultured cerebral astrocytes.

Selective effects of α-MSH and MIF-1 on the blood-brain barrier

Dose-dependent, amphetamine-induced changes in permeability of the blood-brain barrier of normotensive and spontaneously hypertensive rats.

Octanoic acid has been implicated in the pathogenesis of cytotoxic cerebral edema in Reye's syndrome. Using astrocytes from primary culture, we studied the dose-dependent effects of octanoate on cellular volume regulation and metabolism. Astrocyte volume recovery following hypoosmotic swelling was stimulated by 1.0 mM octanoate and inhibited by 3.0 mM octanoate. Parallel effects were obtained at these concentrations on the activity of the Na+,K+-depen-dent ATPase. Cellular ATP concentrations also were reduced 36% with the higher octanoate concentration. These effects of octanoate may contribute to the severe astrocyte swelling observed in the brains of Reye's syndrome patients.

Raman Sankar

Papers

Energy-dependent volume regulation in primary cultured cerebral astrocytes.

Selective effects of α-MSH and MIF-1 on the blood-brain barrier

Dose-dependent, amphetamine-induced changes in permeability of the blood-brain barrier of normotensive and spontaneously hypertensive rats.

Octanoic acid inhibits astrocyte volume control: implications for cerebral edema in Reye's syndrome.