Preface to the Princeton Landmarks in Biology Edition vii Preface xi Symbols Used xiii 1. The Importance of Islands 3 2. Area and Number of Speicies 8 3. Further Explanations of the Area-Diversity Pattern 19 4. The Strategy of Colonization 68 5. Invasibility and the Variable Niche 94 6. Stepping Stones and Biotic Exchange 123 7. Evolutionary Changes Following Colonization 145 8. Prospect 181 Glossary 185 References 193 Index 201

The Theory of Island Biogeography

So far in this course we have dealt entirely with the evolution of characters that are controlled by simple Mendelian inheritance at a single locus. There are notes on the course website about gametic disequilibrium and how allele frequencies change at two loci simultaneously, but we didn’t discuss them. In every example we’ve considered we’ve imagined that we could understand something about evolution by examining the evolution of a single gene. That’s the domain of classical population genetics. For the next few weeks we’re going to be exploring a field that’s actually older than classical population genetics, although the approach we’ll be taking to it involves the use of population genetic machinery. If you know a little about the history of evolutionary biology, you may know that after the rediscovery of Mendel’s work in 1900 there was a heated debate between the “biometricians” (e.g., Galton and Pearson) and the “Mendelians” (e.g., de Vries, Correns, Bateson, and Morgan). Biometricians asserted that the really important variation in evolution didn’t follow Mendelian rules. Height, weight, skin color, and similar traits seemed to

Human biochemical genetics

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Trichoderma spp. are free-living fungi that are common in soil and root ecosystems. Recent discoveries show that they are opportunistic, avirulent plant symbionts, as well as being parasites of other fungi. At least some strains establish robust and long-lasting colonizations of root surfaces and penetrate into the epidermis and a few cells below this level. They produce or release a variety of compounds that induce localized or systemic resistance responses, and this explains their lack of pathogenicity to plants. These root-microorganism associations cause substantial changes to the plant proteome and metabolism. Plants are protected from numerous classes of plant pathogen by responses that are similar to systemic acquired resistance and rhizobacteria-induced systemic resistance. Root colonization by Trichoderma spp. also frequently enhances root growth and development, crop productivity, resistance to abiotic stresses and the uptake and use of nutrients.

/pdf/trichoderma-species-opportunistic-avirulent-plant-symbionts-45qig4ds8p.pdf

Trichoderma species--opportunistic, avirulent plant symbionts.

Studies of local adaptation provide important insights into the power of natural selection relative to gene flow and other evolutionary forces. They are a paradigm for testing evolutionary hypotheses about traits favoured by particular environmental factors. This paper is an attempt to summarize the conceptual framework for local adaptation studies. We first review theoretical work relevant for local adaptation. Then we discuss reciprocal transplant and common garden experiments designed to detect local adaptation in the pattern of deme · habitat interaction for fitness. Finally, we review research questions and approaches to studying the processes of local adaptation ‐ divergent natural selection, dispersal and gene flow, and other processes affecting adaptive differentiation of local demes. We advocate multifaceted approaches to the study of local adaptation, and stress the need for experiments explicitly addressing hypotheses about the role of particular ecological and genetic factors that promote or hinder local adaptation. Experimental evolution of replicated populations in controlled spatially heterogeneous environments allow direct tests of such hypotheses, and thus would be a valuable way to complement research on natural populations.

/pdf/conceptual-issues-in-local-adaptation-48foi7473m.pdf

Conceptual issues in local adaptation

Plants face a daunting array of creatures which eat them, bore into them and use virtually every plant part for food or shelter. However, plants are far from defenceless under attack. Although they cannot flee their attackers, they can produce defences, such as thorns, and can actively alter their chemistry and physiology in response to damage. For instance, young potato leaves being eaten by potato beetles respond by producing chemicals which inhibit beetle digestive enzymes. Research on these induced responses to herbivory has proceeded since the 1980s, and this comprehensive evaluation and synthesis of a rapidly-developing field provides state-of-the-discipline reviews, and highlights areas of research which might be productive. This overview should appeal to a wide variety of theoretical and applied researchers in ecology, evolutionary biology, plant biology, entomology and agriculture.

Induced Responses to Herbivory

While the proportion of cases in which induced responses act as defenses against herbivores may be uncertain, we would like to consider in this review the characteristics of changes that relate to their role as defenses. What are the changes, why and how might they occur, and what might be done to further understand their influence on plant-herbivore interactions?

http://www.sysecol2.ethz.ch/Refs/EntClim/K/Ka044_S.pdf

Induced Plant Responses to Herbivory

In spite of initial doubts about the reality of ‘talking trees’, plant resistance expression mediated by volatile compounds that come from neighboring plants is now well described. Airborne signals usually improve the resistance of the receiver, but without obvious benefits for the emitter, thus making the evolutionary explanation of this phenomenon problematic. Here, we discuss four possible non-exclusive explanations involving the role of volatiles: in direct defense, as within-plant signals, as traits that synergistically interact with other defenses, and as cues among kin. Unfortunately, there is a lack of knowledge on the fitness consequences of plant communication for both emitter and receiver. This information is crucial to understanding the ecology and evolution of plant communication via airborne cues.

https://www.cell.com/trends/ecology-evolution/pdf/S0169-5347(09)00300-0.pdf

Explaining evolution of plant communication by airborne signals.

Summary
1. Induced resistance is now widely accepted as a potent and widespread ecological force although several pieces of the story remain very poorly known. Theory predicts that induced defences should be favoured in variable environments especially when plants can use cues to reliably predict future conditions; however, this idea has not been seriously evaluated for plants.

2. Theory also predicts that plastic, induced defences should be favoured over permanent, constitutive defences if defences are costly and not always needed. This hypothesis has received considerable attention and limited support; resource allocation costs have been difficult to detect although ecological costs of defence may be more common. Recently, priming has emerged as a mechanism that may further reduce costs. Primed plants do not immediately produce the gene products associated with induced resistance but later respond more rapidly and strongly to severe or repeated attacks. It remains to be determined how common priming is.

3. Much of what we know about induced resistance is from the herbivore’s point of view. Induced resistance will be beneficial from the plant’s point of view if herbivores avoid induced plants, but the behavioural responses of herbivores to induced plant variation are still poorly studied.

4. Recent progress in understanding the detailed spatial and temporal extent of induced resistance has improved our appreciation of the phenomenon. Although some induced responses are systemic throughout entire plant individuals, many others have been found to be localized to damaged tissues. Plant vascular architecture and transpiration rates greatly constrain the distribution of vascular cues. Some plants rely on volatile cues that are active over relatively short distances and may be subject to eavesdropping by other plants, herbivores, and carnivores. Similarly, the temporal duration of induced responses may have important consequences on effectiveness although limited information is available concerning lag times before induction and relaxation times following induction.

5. Limited spatial and temporal scales of induced responses make plants more variable from the herbivore’s point of view. Recent work suggests that plant heterogeneity may be difficult for herbivores to cope with although this hypothesis awaits further empirical testing.

https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1365-2435.2010.01789.x

The ecology and evolution of induced resistance against herbivores

The possibility of communication between plants was proposed nearly 20 years ago, although previous demonstrations have suffered from methodological problems and have not been widely accepted. Here we report the first rigorous, experimental evidence demonstrating that undamaged plants respond to cues released by neighbors to induce higher levels of resistance against herbivores in nature. Sagebrush plants that were clipped in the field released a pulse of an epimer of methyl jasmonate that has been shown to be a volatile signal capable of inducing resistance in wild tobacco. Wild tobacco plants with clipped sagebrush neighbors had increased levels of the putative defensive oxidative enzyme, polyphenol oxidase, relative to control tobacco plants with unclipped sagebrush neighbors. Tobacco plants near clipped sagebrush experienced greatly reduced levels of leaf damage by grasshoppers and cutworms during three field seasons compared to unclipped controls. This result was not caused by an altered light regime experienced by tobacco near clipped neighbors. Barriers to soil contact between tobacco and sagebrush did not reduce the difference in leaf damage although barriers that blocked air contact negated the effect.

Richard Karban

Papers

Induced Responses to Herbivory

Induced Plant Responses to Herbivory

Explaining evolution of plant communication by airborne signals.

The ecology and evolution of induced resistance against herbivores

Communication between plants : induced resistance in wild tobacco plants following clipping of neighboring sagebrush