Ecosystem services are natural processes that benefit humans. Birds contribute the four types of services recognized by the UN Millennium Ecosystem Assessment-provisioning, regulating, cultural, and supporting services. In this review, we concentrate primarily on supporting services, and to a lesser extent, provisioning and regulating services. As members of ecosystems, birds play many roles, including as predators, pollinators, scavengers, seed dispersers, seed predators, and ecosystem engineers. These ecosystem services fall into two subcategories: those that arise via behavior (like consumption of agricultural pests) and those that arise via bird products (like nests and guano). Characteristics of most birds make them quite special from the perspective of ecosystem services. Because most birds fly, they can respond to irruptive or pulsed resources in ways generally not possible for other vertebrates. Migratory species link ecosystem processes and fluxes that are separated by great distances and times. Although the economic value to humans contributed by most, if not all, of the supporting services has yet to be quantified, we believe they are important to humans. Our goals for this review are 1) to lay the groundwork on these services to facilitate future efforts to estimate their economic value, 2) to highlight gaps in our knowledge, and 3) to point to future directions for additional research.

Ecosystem Services Provided by Birds

— 1 — The Auk, Vol. 128, Number 1, pages 1−14. ISSN 0004-8038, electronic ISSN 1938-4254.  2011 by The American Ornithologists’ Union. All rights reserved. Please direct all requests for permission to photocopy or reproduce article content through the University of California Press’s Rights and Permissions website, http://www.ucpressjournals. com/reprintInfo.asp. DOI: 10.1525/auk.2011.10248 8Present address: Loras College, 1450 Alta Vista, Dubuque, Iowa 52004, USA. E-mail: harrier2@mchsi.com 9Present address: Department of Biology, University of Utah, 257 South 1400 East, Room 201, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112, USA. The Auk 128(1):1–14, 2011  The American Ornithologists’ Union, 2011. Printed in USA. The Auk An International Journal of Ornithology

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The Need to Quantify Ecosystem Services Provided By Birds

Conservation of Grassland Birds in North America: Understanding Ecological Processes in Different Regions, Report of the AOU Committee on Conservation

Shifts in species' distribution and abundance in response to climate change have been well documented, but the underpinning processes are still poorly understood. We present the results of a systematic literature review and meta-analysis investigating the frequency and importance of different mechanisms by which climate has impacted natural populations. Most studies were from temperate latitudes of North America and Europe; almost half investigated bird populations. We found significantly greater support for indirect, biotic mechanisms than direct, abiotic mechanisms as mediators of the impact of climate on populations. In addition, biotic effects tended to have greater support than abiotic factors in studies of species from higher trophic levels. For primary consumers, the impact of climate was equally mediated by biotic and abiotic mechanisms, whereas for higher level consumers the mechanisms were most frequently biotic, such as predation or food availability. Biotic mechanisms were more frequently supported in studies that reported a directional trend in climate than in studies with no such climatic change, although sample sizes for this comparison were small. We call for more mechanistic studies of climate change impacts on populations, particularly in tropical systems.

Mechanisms underpinning climatic impacts on natural populations: altered species interactions are more important than direct effects.

Ecology and conservation of neotropical migrant landbirds

Provision of suitable sites for red-cockaded woodpecker (Picotdes borealis) cavity excavation is essential for successful management of the woodpecker. To evaluate internal characteristics of pines used by the woodpecker, we increment-cored longleaf pines (Pinus palustris) to determine heartwood diameter, sapwood thickness, and presence of fungal heartwood decay at 1.3, 6.0, 9.0, and 12.0 m aboveground in 53 red-cockaded woodpecker cavity trees and 53 similar control pines in eastern Texas. Red-cockaded woodpecker cavity trees had thinner sapwood and greater heartwood diameter at all heights than did control trees (P 100 years and did not occur with any regularity until pines were >120 years. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 58(4):728-734

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Heartwood, sapwood, and fungal decay associated with red-cockaded woodpecker cavity trees

The effects of Red-cockaded Woodpecker (Picoides borealis) management on nontarget birds is not widely known. Intensive management for pine specialists such as the Red-cockaded Woodpecker may negatively impact both Nearctic-Neotropical and Temperate Zone migrants associated with hardwood vegetation. To evaluate possible positive and negative associations, we surveyed avian communities from 1995–1997 using point counts within managed Red-cockaded Woodpecker cavity tree clusters and mature forest control sites in longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) and loblolly (P. taeda)-shortleaf (P. echinata) pine habitats. In general, sites managed for Red-cockaded Woodpeckers supported more diverse and numerous bird populations than mature forest control sites. During the breeding season in loblolly-shortleaf and longleaf pine habitats, respectively, species richness was 47% and 23% greater, avian abundance was 57% and 65% greater, and bird species diversity was 25% and 21% greater within managed Red-cockaded Wood...

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Avian community response to southern pine ecosystem restoration for red-cockaded woodpeckers

United States Geological Survey's Upper Midwest Environmental Sciences Center Animal Care and Use Committee approved the final surgical procedure (UMESC SOP #TS 416.0). Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for A description and evaluation of a plastic belt for attaching radio transmitters to western toads (Bufo boreas). and conservation of adult California red-legged frogs Rana aurora draytonii in coastal-forests and grasslands. External and implanted methods of radio transmitter attachment to a terrestrial anuran (Eleuthrodactylus augusti). LOWE, J. 2004. Rates of tricaine methanesulfonate (MS-222) anesthetiza-tion in relation to pH and concentration in five terrestrial salamanders. for expulsion of surgically implanted dummy transmitters from channel catfish. Trans. A telemetric study of the movement patterns and habitat use of Rana muscosa, the mountain yellow-legged frog, in a high-elevation basin in Kings Canyon National Park, California. 1998. Snake mortality associated with late season radio-transmitter implantation. Large scale trapping protocols for snakes can be expensive and require large investments of personnel and time. Typical methods, such as pitfall and small funnel traps, are not useful or suitable for capturing large snakes. A method was needed to survey multiple blocks of habitat for the Louisiana Pine Snake (Pituophis ruthveni), throughout its historic range in Louisiana and Texas, to obtain presence-absence data and to obtain specimens for radio-telem-etry studies (Himes et al. materials, time necessary to service traps, ease of installation, and Mums, E. 2003. A radio transmitter belt for small ranid frogs. Herpetol. of Columbia spotted frogs (Rana luteiventris) among complementary ties. We ultimately designed a large four-entrance funnel with resources in a high mountain basin. Can. J. Zool./Rev. Can. zool. extensive drift fence arms to guide makes toward the trap open

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A successful trap design for capturing large terrestrial snakes

Red-cockaded Woodpeckers (Picoides borealis) nest and forage in pine-dominated forests. Research indicates that substantial hardwood midstory encroachment is detrimental to Red-cockaded Woodpecker populations, although the exact mechanisms are unknown. We examined foraging behavior in relation to midstory between August 1989 and February 1990. Red-cockaded Woodpeckers foraged at greater heights in areas of taller and denser midstory in the loblolly-shortleaf pine (Pinus taeda and P. echinata, respectively) habitat, but not in longleaf pine (P. palustris) habitat with less-developed midstory vegetation than typical of loblolly-shortleaf pine habitat. In addition, Red-cockaded Woodpeckers concentrated foraging activities in or adjacent to forest stands or openings with reduced midstory vegetation. Overall, Red-cockaded Woodpeckers foraged disproportionately at heights and sites that minimized their exposure to dense midstory conditions. These results suggest that ecosystem management, preferably us...

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Red-cockaded woodpecker foraging behavior in relation to midstory vegetation

For several decades general opinion has suggested that southern flying squir- rels (Glaucomys volans) have a negative effect on Red-cockaded Woodpeckers (Picoides borealis) through competition for cavities and egg/nestling predation. Complete removal of hardwood trees from Red-cockaded Woodpecker cavity tree clusters has occurred on some forests because southern flying squirrel abundance was presumed to be associated with the presence and abundance of hardwood vegetation. In some locations, southern flying squirrels have been captured and either moved or killed in the name of Red-cockaded Woodpecker management. We determined southern flying squirrel occupancy of Red-cockaded Wood- pecker cavities in loblolly (Pinus taeda)-shortleaf (P. echinata) pine habitat (with and with- out hardwood midstory vegetation) and longleaf pine (P. palustris) habitat (nearly devoid of hardwood vegetation) during spring, late summer, and winter during 1990 and 1991. Flying squirrel use of Red-cockaded Woodpecker cavities was variable and was not related to presence or abundance of hardwood vegetation. Woodpecker nest productivity was not correlated with flying squirrel use of woodpecker cavities within clusters. In addition, we observed six instances where Red-cockaded Woodpeckers successfully nested while flying squirrels occupied other cavities in the same tree. Our results suggest that complete removal of hardwoods from woodpecker cluster areas in loblolly and shortleaf pine habitat may not provide benefits to the woodpeckers through reduction of flying squirrel numbers. Reduction of hardwood midstory around cavity trees, however, is still essential because of the wood- pecker's apparent innate intolerance of hardwood midstory foliage. Received 3 Nov. 1995, accepted 21 Mar. 1996.

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Richard R. Schaefer

Papers

Heartwood, sapwood, and fungal decay associated with red-cockaded woodpecker cavity trees

Avian community response to southern pine ecosystem restoration for red-cockaded woodpeckers

A successful trap design for capturing large terrestrial snakes

Red-cockaded woodpecker foraging behavior in relation to midstory vegetation

Red-cockaded woodpecker nesting success, forest structure, and southern flying squirrels in texas