In this article, the author describes a new theoretical perspective on positive emotions and situates this new perspective within the emerging field of positive psychology. The broaden-and-build theory posits that experiences of positive emotions broaden people's momentary thought-action repertoires, which in turn serves to build their enduring personal resources, ranging from physical and intellectual resources to social and psychological resources. Preliminary empirical evidence supporting the broaden-and-build theory is reviewed, and open empirical questions that remain to be tested are identified. The theory and findings suggest that the capacity to experience positive emotions may be a fundamental human strength central to the study of human flourishing.

http://www.elaborer.org/cours/A13/lectures/Fredrickson2001.pdf

The role of positive emotions in positive psychology. The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions.

Research on the relation between attitude and behavior is examined in light of the correspondence between attitudinal and behavioral entities. Such entities are defined by their target, action, context, and time elements. A review of available empirical research supports the contention that strong attitude-behavior relations dre obtained only under high correspondence between at least the target and action elements of the attitudinal and behavioral entities. This conclusion is compared with the rather pessimistic assessment of the utility of the attitude concept found in much contemporary social psychological literature.

/pdf/attitude-behavior-relations-a-theoretical-analysis-and-2wr3erzb6j.pdf

Attitude-behavior relations: A theoretical analysis and review of empirical research.

Objectives: Lao Juan (LJ, 劳倦) is a syndrome described in Chinese medicine (CM) that manifests with : Lao Juan (LJ, 劳倦) is a syndrome described in Chinese medicine (CM) that manifests with fatigue, fever, spontaneous sweating, indigestion, work-induced pain, weakness of the limbs, and shortness of breath. fatigue, fever, spontaneous sweating, indigestion, work-induced pain, weakness of the limbs, and shortness of breath. The present study was conducted to examine the reliability and validity of a Lao Juan Questionnaire (LJQ). The present study was conducted to examine the reliability and validity of a Lao Juan Questionnaire (LJQ). Methods: A total of 151 outpatients and 73 normal subjects were asked to complete the LJQ. Seventy-three normal subjects A total of 151 outpatients and 73 normal subjects were asked to complete the LJQ. Seventy-three normal subjects were additionally asked to complete the Chalder Fatigue Scale (CFS). Twelve clinicians determined whether the were additionally asked to complete the Chalder Fatigue Scale (CFS). Twelve clinicians determined whether the 151 outpatients exhibited LJ or not. The internal consistency and construct validity for the LJQ were estimated using 151 outpatients exhibited LJ or not. The internal consistency and construct validity for the LJQ were estimated using data from the outpatient subjects. The CFS data were used to examine the concurrent validity of the LJQ. Total LJQ data from the outpatient subjects. The CFS data were used to examine the concurrent validity of the LJQ. Total LJQ scores and the clinicians' diagnoses of the outpatients were used to perform receiver operating characteristics (ROC) scores and the clinicians' diagnoses of the outpatients were used to perform receiver operating characteristics (ROC) curve analyses and to defi ne an optimum cut-off score for the LJQ. curve analyses and to defi ne an optimum cut-off score for the LJQ. Results: The 19-item LJQ had satisfactory internal : The 19-item LJQ had satisfactory internal consistency (α=0.828) and concurrent validity, with signifi cant correlations between the LJQ and the CFS subscales. consistency (α=0.828) and concurrent validity, with signifi cant correlations between the LJQ and the CFS subscales. In the test of construct validity using principal component analysis, a total of six factors were extracted, and the overall In the test of construct validity using principal component analysis, a total of six factors were extracted, and the overall variance explained by all factors was 59.5%. In ROC curve analyses, the sensitivity, specifi city, and area under the variance explained by all factors was 59.5%. In ROC curve analyses, the sensitivity, specifi city, and area under the curve were 76.0%, 59.2%, and 0.709, respectively. The optimum cut-off score was defi ned as six points. curve were 76.0%, 59.2%, and 0.709, respectively. The optimum cut-off score was defi ned as six points. Conclusions: Our results suggest that the LJQ is a reliable and valid instrument for evaluating LJ. Our results suggest that the LJQ is a reliable and valid instrument for evaluating LJ. KEYWORDS Chinese medicine, chronic fatigue syndrome, Chinese medicine-pattern Chinese medicine, chronic fatigue syndrome, Chinese medicine-pattern

Development and Validation of A

▪ Abstract We review empirical and conceptual developments over the past four years (1992–1995) on attitudes and persuasion. A voluminous amount of material was produced concerning attitude structure, attitude change, and the consequences of holding attitudes. In the structure area, particular attention is paid to work on attitude accessiblity, ambivalence, and the affective versus cognitive bases of attitudes. In persuasion, our review examines research that has focused on high effort cognitive processes (central route), low effort processes (peripheral route), and the multiple roles by which variables can have an impact on attitudes. Special emphasis is given to work on cognitive dissonance and other biases in message processing, and on the multiple processes by which mood influences evaluations. Work on the consequences of attitudes focuses on the impact of attitudes on behavior and social judgments.

Attitudes and attitude change

Allport (1954) recognized that attachment to one's ingroups does not necessarily require hostility toward outgroups. Yet the prevailing approach to the study of ethnocentrism, ingroup bias, and prejudice presumes that ingroup love and outgroup hate are reciprocally related. Findings from both cross-cultural research and laboratory experiments support the alternative view that ingroup identification is independent of negative attitudes toward outgroups and that much ingroup bias and intergroup discrimination is motivated by preferential treatment of ingroup members rather than direct hostility toward outgroup members. Thus to understand the roots of prejudice and discrimination requires first of all a better understanding of the functions that ingroup formation and identification serve for human beings. This article reviews research and theory on the motivations for maintenance of ingroup boundaries and the implications of ingroup boundary protection for intergroup relations, conflict, and conflict prevention.

/pdf/the-psychology-of-prejudice-ingroup-love-and-outgroup-hate-4rnxayadwm.pdf

The Psychology of Prejudice: Ingroup Love and Outgroup Hate?

Maps, Figures, and Tables A Note to My Fellow Teachers A Personal Welcome to Students Acknowledgments Supplements About the Authors CHAPTER 1: NEW WORLD ENCOUNTERS, PRECONQUEST-1608. Diverse Cultures: De Vaca's Journey Through Native America Native Americans Before the Conquest. Conditions of Conquest. West Africa: Ancient and Complex Societies. Europe on the Eve of Conquest. Spain in the Americas. The French Claim Canada. The English Take Up the Challenge. Conclusion: Campaign to Sell America. CHAPTER 2: ENGLAND'S NEW WORLD EXPERIMENTS 1607-1732. Profit and Piety: Competing Visions for English Settlement. Breaking Away: Decisions to Move to America A "New" England in America. Diversity in the Middle Colonies. Planting the Southern Colonies. Conclusion: Living with Diversity. CHAPTER 3: PUTTING DOWN ROOTS: OPPORTUNITY AND OPPRESSION IN COLONIAL SOCIETY, 1619-1692. Families in an Atlantic Empire. Social Stability: New England Colonies of the Seventeenth Century. The Challenge of the Chesapeake Environment. Race and Freedom in British America. Blueprint for Empire. Colonial Political Revolt. Conclusion: Foundations of an Atlantic Empire. CHAPTER 4: EXPERIENCE OF EMPIRE: EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY AMERICA, 1680-1763. Constructing an Anglo-American Identity: The Journal of William Byrd. Tensions in the Backcountry. Spanish Borderlands of the Eighteenth Century. The Impact of European Ideas on American Culture. Religious Revivals in Provincial Societies. Clash of Political Cultures. Century of Imperial War. Conclusion: Rule Britannia? CHAPTER 5: THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION: FROM ELITE PROTEST TO POPULAR REVOLT, 1763-1783. Moment of Decision: Commitment and Sacrifice. Structure of Colonial Society. Eroding the Bonds of Empire. Steps Toward Independence. Fighting for Independence. Conclusion: Preserving Independence. CHAPTER 6: THE REPUBLICAN EXPERIMENT, 1783-1788. A New Political Morality. Defining Republican Culture. Stumbling Toward a New National Government. "Have We Fought for This?" Whose Constitution? Struggle for Ratification. Conclusion: Success Depends on the People. CHAPTER 7: DEMOCRACY AND DISSENT: THE VIOLENCE OF PARTY POLITICS, 1788-1800. Force of Public Opinion. Principle and Pragmatism: Establishing a New Government. Hamilton's Plan for Prosperity and Security. Charges of Treason: The Battle over Foreign Affairs. Popular Political Culture. The Adams Presidency: Politics of Mistrust. Conclusion: Danger of Political Extremism. CHAPTER 8: REPUBLICAN ASCENDANCY: THE JEFFERSONIAN VISION, 1800-1814. Limits of Equality. The Republic Expands. Jefferson as President. Race and Dissent Under Jefferson. Embarrassments Overseas. The Strange War of 1812. Conclusion: The "Second War of Independence." CHAPTER 9: NATION BUILDING AND NATIONALISM, 1815-1825. A Revolutionary War Hero Revisits America in 1824. Expansion and Migration. Transportation and the Market Economy. The Politics of Nation Building after the War of 1812. Conclusion: The End of the Era of Good Feeling. CHAPTER 10: THE TRIUMPH OF WHITE MEN'S DEMOCRACY, 1824-1840. Democratic Space: The New Hotels. Democracy in Theory and Practice. Jackson and the Politics of Democracy. The Bank War and the Second Party System. Heyday of the Second Party System. Conclusion: Tocqueville's Wisdom. CHAPTER 11: SLAVES AND MASTERS, 1793-1861. Nat Turner's Rebellion: A Turning Point in the Slave South. The World of Southern Blacks. White Society in the Antebellum South. Slavery and the Southern Economy. Conclusion: Worlds in Conflict. CHAPTER 12: THE PURSUIT OF PERFECTION, 1800-1861. Redeeming the Middle Class. The Rise of Evangelicalism. Domesticity and Changes in the American Family. Reform Turns Radical. Conclusion: Counterpoint on Reform. CHAPTER 13: AN AGE OF EXPANSIONISM, 1830-1861. The Spirit of Young America. Texas, Manifest Destiny, and the Mexican-American War. Internal Expansionism and the Industrial Revolution. Conclusion: The Costs of Expansion. CHAPTER 14: THE SECTIONAL CRISIS, 1846-1861. Brooks Assaults Sumner in Congress. The Compromise of 1850. Political Upheaval, 1852-1856. The House Divided, 1857-1860. Conclusion: Explaining the Crisis. CHAPTER 15: SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR, 1860-1865. The Emergence of Lincoln. The Storm Gathers. Adjusting to Total War. Fight to the Finish. Effects of the War. Conclusion: An Organizational Revolution. CHAPTER 16: THE AGONY OF RECONSTRUCTION, 1863-1877. Robert Smalls and Black Politicians During Reconstruction. The President versus Congress. Reconstructing Southern Society. Retreat from Reconstruction. Reunion and the New South. Conclusion: Henry McNeal Turner and the "Unfinished Revolution." Appendix Glossary Credits Index

Social Psychology: Understanding Human Interaction

Two experiments were conducted to examine the influence of ambient temperature upon physical aggression. In the first, male subjects received either a positive or negative evaluation from a confederate and were then provided with an opportunity to agress against this person by means of electric shock. On the basis of previous research, it was predicted that high ambient temperatures (92-95 degrees F) would facilitate aggression by those receiving positive evaluations but actually inhibit such behavior by those receiving negative assessments. Results confirmed both of these predictions and also indicated that more moderate but still uncomfortably warm temperatures (82-85 degrees F) produced similar effects. The second experiment employed procedures similar to the first and examined the suggestion that administration of a cooling drink would reduce the impact of high ambient temperatures upon overt aggression. This prediction, too, was confirmed. The possible mediating role of negative affect with respect to the influence of ambient temperature and other environmental factors upon aggression was discussed.

Aggression and heat: the influence of ambient temperature, negative affect, and a cooling drink on physical aggression.

Male and female subjects interviewed female applicants for an entry-level management position. The applicants were actually confederates of the researcher who engaged or did not engage in two different tactics of self-presentation: the emission of many positive nonverbal cues and the use of one popular grooming aid (perfume). It was predicted that alone, each of these tactics would enhance ratings assigned to the applicants. However, together, they would induce negative reactions among interviewers (e.g., attributions of manipulativeness to the applicant). It was further hypothesized that such reactions would be stronger among male than among female interviewers. Finally, it was predicted that the two self-presentational tactics investigated would affect interviewers' memory for information presented by the applicants. Results offered support for all of these hypotheses.

Self-Presentation in Job Interviews: When There Can Be “Too Much of a Good Thing”1

Previous research indicates that anger and aggression can both be reduced by exposure to events that generate positive states incompatible with these reactions. To determine if this principle could be applied to the reduction of organizationa l conflict, male and female subjects played the role of executives and discussed important organizational issues with another person This individual was actually an accomplice who disagreed strongly with their views. Such disagreement was expressed either in a calm and reasonable manner or in an arrogant and condescending fashion. Subjects were then exposed either to one of three treatment conditions designed to induce positive states incompatible with anger (sympathy, gratitude, amusement) or to a no-treatment control. Finally, they rated their current mood, indicated then- impressions of the accomplice, and reported on their likelihood of handling future conflicts with him through collaboration, avoidance, competition, compromise, or accomodation. Results indicated that relative to the control condition, the three incompatible-response-generating treatments improved subjects' moods, enhanced their impressions of the accomplice, and increased then" preference for constructive as opposed to destructive modes of dealing with conflict. In addition, disagreement expressed in a condescending manner produced significantly more negative effects on all dependent measures than disagreement expressed in a reasonable fashion These findings were interpreted as suggesting that useful techniques for the effective management of conflict can be derived from existing knowledge about the control of human aggression Conflict is a common part of life in modern organizations. Indeed, practicing managers report that dealing with conflict and its effects occupies fully 20% of their time (Thomas & Schmidt, 1976). In the past, it was widely assumed that the effects of such conflict are uniformly negative in scope and that it is best avoided under all circumstances. More recently, however, the fact that conflict can sometimes yield positive as well as negative effects has gained increasing recognition (Robbins, 1974). For example, it may lead to the careful consideration of new ideas—ones that would be overlooked in its absence Similarly, conflict can facilitate more searching

Reducing organizational conflict: an incompatible response approach.

64 male undergraduates participated in an experiment designed to examine the effects of level of prior anger arousal, exposure to an aggressive model, and ambient temperature on physical aggression. On the basis of A. Bandura's (1973) social learning theory of aggression, it was predicted that uncomfortably hot environmental conditions would be most effective in facilitating later aggression when Ss had both witnessed the actions of the model and been exposed to strong provocation from the victim, but least effective in this regard when they had neither witnessed the actions of the model nor been exposed to prior instigation. In contrast to these predictions, results indicate that high ambient temperatures facilitated aggression by nonangered Ss but actually inhibited such behavior by those who had previously been provoked. KW: Temperature Violence (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved)

Robert A. Baron

Papers

Social Psychology: Understanding Human Interaction

Aggression and heat: the influence of ambient temperature, negative affect, and a cooling drink on physical aggression.

Self-Presentation in Job Interviews: When There Can Be “Too Much of a Good Thing”1

Reducing organizational conflict: an incompatible response approach.

Aggression and heat: mediating effects of prior provocation and exposure to an aggressive model.