Showing papers in "Journal of Applied Social Psychology in 1986"

On-the-Job Experience and Skill at Detecting Deception1

Abstract: The role of on-the-job experience in fostering skill at detecting deception was examined. A deception-detection test was administered to three samples of more than 100 subjects each: a group of undergraduates with no special experiences at detecting deceit; a group of new recruits to a federal law enforcement training program, who had some limited on-the-job experience at detecting deceit; and a group of advanced federal law enforcement officers, with years of experience working at jobs in which the detection of deception is very important. Although the officer samples were more confident about their judgments of deceptiveness than were the students, they were no more accurate than the students. None of the three groups showed a significant improvement in deception-detection success from the first half to the second half of the test; however, the advanced officers felt increasingly confident about their performance as they progressed through the test. Correlational analyses of the relationship between accuracy and confidence provided further evidence that experience does not improve people's awareness oi the accuracy or inaccuracy of their judgments. The findings from this research are compared to the results of research on other kinds of professional decision-makers (e.g., clinical psychologists), and several theoretical perspectives on the role of experience in decision making are discussed.

Measurement of Sense of Community Within the Sphere of City1

Abstract: Based on a deductive process, several objective items were developed to measure people's sense of community with their city of residence. An item analysis produced a 17-item scale, which was then evaluated for homogeneity and external validity in three studies using telephone interviews on random samples in Alabama and South Carolina. Of seven hypotheses that were tested, six received support. Results described the scale as internally reliable and unidimensional, and the scale differentiated between people who differed in terms of demographics, home ownership, and civic contributions. Contrary to prediction, the scale did not relate to how long people had lived in their city. Explanations for this were offered and then conclusions were drawn about the potential usefulness of the scale.

Increasing Community Recycling with Persuasive Communication and Public Commitment

Abstract: Persuasive communication and public commitment were used to encourage recycling in a citywide program. The persuasive communication was a combination of factors which have been found by laboratory researchers to produce attitude and/or behavior change. The public commitment manipulation involved signing a statement supportive of recycling. Households which did not recycle during a 6-week baseline period were selected for experimental study. Trained Boy Scouts made an oral informational statement and then gave each of 201 experimental households one of three treatments (a written persuasive communication, public commitment, or both). A control group of 132 homes received no treatment. Recycling was observed for 6 weeks following delivery of all treatments. Results indicated that the three treatment groups recycled significantly more than the control group but did not differ significantly from each other. Future directions for applied work in this domain are discussed.

Video Games and Aggression in Children

Abstract: This study examined the effect of playing an aggressive or nonaggressive video game on fifth-graders' free play. Twenty-two pairs of boys and 20 pairs of girls were randomly assigned to one of three conditions. One of the children in each pair played a video game rated by peers as aggressive, a video game with little aggression, or a non-video maze-solving game for 8 minutes. The other child watched. Each child was then left individually to engage in free play in a separate room for 8 minutes, and also given the opportunity to deliver rewards and punishments to another child. The results were similar for both players and observers. Girls evidenced significantly more general activity and aggressive free play after playing the aggressive video game. Girls' activity decreased and their quiet play slightly increased after playing the low aggressive game compared to the control group. Neither video game had any significant effect on boys' free play. Neither girls nor boys gave significantly more punishments or rewards after playing any of the games.

Self-Presentation in Job Interviews: When There Can Be “Too Much of a Good Thing”1

Abstract: Male and female subjects interviewed female applicants for an entry-level management position. The applicants were actually confederates of the researcher who engaged or did not engage in two different tactics of self-presentation: the emission of many positive nonverbal cues and the use of one popular grooming aid (perfume). It was predicted that alone, each of these tactics would enhance ratings assigned to the applicants. However, together, they would induce negative reactions among interviewers (e.g., attributions of manipulativeness to the applicant). It was further hypothesized that such reactions would be stronger among male than among female interviewers. Finally, it was predicted that the two self-presentational tactics investigated would affect interviewers' memory for information presented by the applicants. Results offered support for all of these hypotheses.

Is There a Double Standard of Aging?1

Abstract: Elderly and college-aged subjects rated photographs of both sexes at three different ages on 10 adjective rating scales. Evidence for a double standard of aging was obtained. Although both men and women were perceived to diminish in attractiveness as they aged, the decline for women was greater. Moreover, ratings of women's femininity decreased with increasing age, whereas evaluations of men's masculinity were unaffected by age. Unexpectedly, elderly subjects, as compared to college students, discriminated less on the basis of sex and evaluated women more positively. Changes in the gender roles of the elderly were invoked to explain their more favorable conceptions of women.

Hiring Decisions for Disabled Workers: Looking at the Cause

Abstract: This study experimentally explored hiring recommendations involving disabled job applicants. One hundred eight supervisors and mid-level managers reviewed the cover letter and resume of an applicant and the job description for a simulated position. The applicant's type of disability and cause of disability were systematically manipulated in the resume and cover letter. The results demonstrated that subjects made different recommendations for hiring the applicant as a function of the type as well as the cause of the disability. Implications for employers' bias are discussed and suggestions for future research are presented.

Predicting Cigarette Use: The Need to Incorporate Measures of Salience in the Theory of Reasoned Action1,2

Abstract: It is shown that incorporating a measure of belief salience in the theory of reasoned action improves both the model's predictive and explanatory power. It is demonstrated that the sum of the five evaluative-beliefs which are most salient for each person is more predictive of a semantic differential measure of that person's attitude than is the sum of the remaining nonsalient evaluative beliefs. In addition, it is shown that the perceived utilities of smoking are differentially salient for smokers and nonsmokers. It is argued that latitude of rejection, centrality, and certainty can be used as measures of the degree of definition of a person's attitudes and subjective norms. It is consequently predicted that these variables will be correlated and that attitudes and subjective norms which are well defined will be more highly predictive of a person's intention and behavior. While some support was found for these hypotheses, it is argued that the present results suggest that the relationship between these variables may be more complicated than was initially hypothesized.

Trait Attributions About College Students With a Physical Disability: Circumplex Analyses and Methodological Issues1

Abstract: Trait attributions concerning able-bodied college students and those with a physical disability were investigated in two studies. In Study 1, 194 able-bodied students completed extensive adjective checklists in one of four experimental conditions: stimulus person physically disabled (wheelchair user) male, disabled female, able-bodied male, or able-bodied female college student. To avoid self-presentation biases, subjects completed checklists not in terms of their own views but in terms of commonly held stereotypes. Results showed that not only were fewer socially desirable and more undesirable traits attributed to students with a disability than to able-bodied students, but when tested for “sameness” vs. “oppositeness” using two circumplex models, traits attributed to students who have a disability were clearly the “opposite” of those attributed to able-bodied students. In Study 2, 115 students completed a trait checklist based on the findings of Study 1 with reference to one of the four stimulus persons. Although subjects reported their own views, the results were consistent with those of Study 1. It was also found that stereotyping in the socially desirable direction was related to stereotyping in the undesirable direction; both were related to lack of ease with students with a disability. Common stereotypes of wheelchair user students are listed and the implications of the findings for the design of programs to reduce prejudice and integrate students with a disability into academic life are discussed.

Videotaped Confessions: The Impact of Camera Point of View on Judgments of Coercion1

Abstract: Twenty-four college students viewed one of three videotapes of a mock police interrogation that ended in a confession. In one videotape the camera was focused primarily on the “suspect”; in a second the camera was focused primarily on the “detective”; and in the third the camera was focused on the suspect and detective equally. Subjects in the suspect-focus condition subsequently judged that the confession was elicited by means of a small degree of coercion; subjects in the equal-focus condition judged that it was elicited by means of a moderate degree of coercion; and subjects in the detective-focus condition judged that it was elicited by means of a large degree of coercion. It is argued that the effect of camera point of view on judgments of coercion is mediated by causal attributions. Consistent with this interpretation, camera point of view also had a significant effect on subjects' attributions for the suspect's behavior, with subjects in the suspect-focus condition making the most dispositional attributions and subjects in the detective-focus condition making the least dispositional attributions. Alternative explanations are considered and limitations of the present research are discussed. It is concluded that to the extent that interrogations are videotaped with the camera focused on the suspect, judges and/ or jurors may be biased to perceive a confession as voluntary.

The Contribution of Cognitive Resources and Leader Behavior to Organizational Performance1

Abstract: A recently proposed cognitive resource theory of leadership effectiveness explicates the role of such cognitive variables as intellectual abilities, technical competence, and job-relevant knowledge (experience) in determining group performance. This paper reviews research showing that the leaders' intellectual abilities contribute to performance only when leaders are directive, do not experience stress, have supportive groups, and work on tasks which require intellectual effort.

Preferences for Individual Video Games as a Function of Their Emotional Effects on Players

Abstract: Video games vary in terms of the emotional states they elicit from players. These differences in emotional reactions, in turn, help account for differential preferences of individual games. The three independent dimensions of pleasure-displeasure, arousal-nonarousal, and dominance-submissiveness were used to assess emotional impacts of individual games. In addition, a preference measure was constructed to evaluate attraction toward, versus avoidance of, specific games. In Study One, a group of subjects provided data on emotional responses to 22 common arcade video games and a different group rated their preferences for the same games. The emotional impact of video games was highly unpleasant, moderately arousing, and moderately dominance-inducing; thus, the predominant emotional response to these games was aggression, anger, or hostility. I n Study Two, subjects visiting a video game arcade were recruited and assigned to play two games each and to report their reactions to each game immediately after playing the game. Results showed that greater feelings of pleasure, and separately of arousal, while playing video games resulted in higher preferences for the games and that greater dominance (significant only for males) also led to higher preferences. It may be beneficial, therefore, to experiment with more arousing and more dominance-inducing game designs which are not necessarily unpleasant or which definitely yield high pleasure.

Unit Morale: From a Theoretical Puzzle to an Empirical Illustration—An Israeli Example1

Abstract: The concept of morale, within its military context, was explored in the present work from both its theoretical and practical aspects. Following a review of the concept's definitional and historical background, the data from a pre-war morale survey administered in May of 1981 to a large sample of Israeli combat troops were analyzed (by means of intercorrelations and factor analysis) as an illustration of the multifaceted structure of morale. While the intercorrelations revealed several major variables related strongly to morale, the factor analysis yielded eight factors, morale being just one of them. These eight factors were: (1) confidence in senior commanders; (2) confidence in one's self, team, and weapons; (3) unit cohesion and morale; (4) familiarity with missions and frontage; (5) confidence in immediate commanders; (6) enemy evaluation; (7) legitimacy of war; (8) worries and concerns. The present analysis may suggest the existence of a higher order concept—perhaps “unit climate”— of which all of the found factors, including morale, are the comprising components.

Mock‐Juror Evaluations of Eyewitness Testimony: A Test of Metamemory Hypotheses1

Abstract: Wells and Lindsay (1983) proposed that juror belief of eyewitness testimony was influenced by various types of information. Four mock-jury experiments were conducted to test hypotheses derived from their metamemory analysis. In Experiment 1, 288 subjects read brief “transcripts” of a purse-snatching trial in which 0, 1, or 2 eyewitnesses testified for each of the prosecution and/or the defense. Consistent with the hypothesis that inter-subjective agreement (consensus among witnesses) was important, guilty verdicts were most likely in the presence of unopposed prosecution eyewitnesses and least likely in the presence of unopposed defense eyewitnesses. Experiment 2 employed 75 subjects viewing a videotaped trial simulation and replicated the findings from the first experiment as well as demonstrating that the nature of the defense witness' testimony (a no identification decision vs. alibi) was unimportant but the person providing an alibi was important (stranger vs. relative). In Experiment 3,60 subjects listened to an audiotaped trial procedure varying the internal consistency of the witness' testimony. Inconsistent testimony failed to reduce belief of the eyewitness as reflected in guilty votes. The fourth experiment exposed 60 subjects to audiotapes of a burglary trial varying lighting conditions and length of exposure of the criminal to the eyewitness. Neither variable significantly influenced belief of the eyewitness. Explanations for the failure to obtain significant effects in the latter two experiments and possible directions for further research are discussed.

The Role of Eyewitness Confidence in Juror Perceptions of Credibility1

Abstract: A review of the theory and research concerning factors affecting persuasion suggested the hypothesis that eyewitness confidence is an important factor in jurors' perceptions of the witness' credibility. Three experiments were conducted using mock jurors to test this hypothesis. Experiment I found that perceptions of credibility varied as a function of witness confidence. Experiment 2 found that perceptions of the accuracy of the witness' description and identification of the suspect varied as a function of her expertise, whereas perceptions of the accuracy of her account of the crime varied as a function of her confidence. Perceived expertise also varied as a function of witness confidence. Because Experiments 1 and 2 used college students as subjects, Experiment 3 was conducted to replicate these findings in an older subject sample. Theoretical and practical implications of the findings are discussed.

Protection Motivation Theory: Prediction of Intentions to Engage in Anti‐Nuclear War Behaviors1

Abstract: The present study examined potential mediators of intentions to engage in behaviors related to the prevention of nuclear war. Protection motivation theory (Rogers, 1975, 1983) suggested that perceived severity of the consequences of nuclear war, perceived likelihood of occurrence of nuclear war, perceived efficacy of responses designed to prevent nuclear war, and perceived capability of engaging in those responses would combine additively and interactively to predict behavioral intentions. The theory further suggested that the effects of a fear-arousing communication on behavioral intentions would be mediated indirectly by changes in the predictor variables. Thus, a second purpose of the study was to evaluate the effects of the program “The Day After”, which dramatically depicted a nuclear holocaust, on viewers' affect (fear-arousal) and cognitions. Surprisingly, the program had no effects on viewers that we could document. We were, however, able to predict behavioral intentions, for both viewers and nonviewers (n= 282), from subjects' affect and cognitions, providing support for protection motivation theory in a new domain.

Ambient Temperature and Violent Crime1

Abstract: Baron and Ransberger (1978) argue that civil violence increases as temperature rises into the mid 80s, and then decreases as temperatures rise further. Two experiments test this hypothesis using data on temperature and the incidence of crime for summer months in two midwestern cities. The crime data were divided into violent and nonviolent crimes, and then correlated with the maximum, minimum, and average temperatures, and several humidity measures. Violent crime correlated significantly with temperature; nonviolent crime did not. This relationship was linear in the first study, but curvilinear in the second. Inspection of the data suggests that the incidence of aggressive behavior (i.e., violent crime) does not drop off in the mid-80s as laboratory findings and Baron and Ransberger's results would suggest, but continues to increase as temperatures rise into the 90s. The mean incidence of violent crime was higher for days in the 90s than for days in the 80s. A hypothesis for resolving this contradiction between real world and laboratory findings is discussed.

Gender, Physical Attractiveness, and Electability: An Experimental Investigation of Voter Biases

Abstract: In an examination of the impacts on electoral success of candidate gender, candidate physical attractiveness, prestige and responsibility of office sought, and voter characteristics, 219 college students evaluated six challengers to an incumbent in either a mayoral or county clerk's race. Challengers represented men and women of high, moderate, and low physical attractiveness. Male, but not female, voters discriminated against female candidates. While physical attractiveness accentuated perceptions of masculinity in a man and femininity in a woman, the appeal of an attractive (i.e., more feminine) woman seeking a masculine-stereotyped position was not damaged by the so-called “beauty is beastly” effect. However, attractiveness was less consistently an asset for female candidates than it was for male candidates. Male, but not female, candidates directly benefitted from being physical attractive and were also more positively evaluated to the extent that they were perceived as highly masculine. These findings not only contribute to understanding of the joint impacts of sex-role and attractiveness stereotypes, but call into question survey findings pointing to the demise of sexism in electoral politics.

Autism and Accuracy in Adolescent Perceptions of Friends' Sexual Attitudes and Behavior

Abstract: This study uses data from adolescents matched with data from their friends to examine whether reference group effects on adolescent sexuality should be thought of as operating through the sharing of norms or the modeling of behavior. We observe that perception of attitudes has such a trivial reality component and such a strong autistic component that it cannot serve as a mechanism of peer influence. Perception of sexual behavior has a reality component which is as large as its autistic component, and large enough to serve as a route of influence. We reach two conclusions: (1) Reference group effects on adolescent sexual behavior probably work through behavior modeling rather than through normative influence. (2) Studies which infer peer influence on sexual behavior using only perception of peers will arrive at erroneous conclusions.

Jury Deliberations: Discussion Content and Influence Processes in Jury Decision Making1

Abstract: The present research investigated the jury deliberation process. Representative juror subjects viewed a realistic videotaped trial consisting of three offenses, deliberated in groups of six and reached verdicts on each charge, and completed a post-deliberation questionnaire that assessed individual cognitions. Deliberations were videotaped and content-analyzed. The results indicated that the initial vote distribution was a good predictor of the final verdict; majorities tended to prevail. Deliberation content was concentrated primarily in two areas: (a) the facts of the case and (b) statements of preference for guilty or not guilty verdicts. Path analyses suggested that decisions on the first charge were based jointly on the content of deliberations and on the group vote distribution, whereas decisions on later charges were based largely on normative pressures. Jurors' post-deliberation impressions of the trial were affected by whether or not they had changed votes during deliberations.

Perceived Control in Prison: Its Relation to Reported Crowding, Stress, and Symptoms1

Abstract: Two studies were conducted to investigate the effects of perceived control in two men's prisons, one housing 181 inmates and the other housing 623 inmates. In both prisons, inmates' perceived control over the environment was found to be significantly related to their ratings of their living accommodations, experienced stress, and physical symptoms, even when type of cell was held constant.

Leadership in the Organizational Context: A Conceptual Approach and its Applications1

Abstract: The present research reviewed the literature on leadership, and noted the lack of a well-founded theoretical conception of leadership that would provide a general, cross-situational approach to leadership identification and develoment. Subsequently, it was suggested systems theory might be used to gain some understanding of leadership as it occurs in bureaucratic organizations. This led to the hypothesis that formal leadership activities will always be focused on the attainment of certain goals specified in the leadership role, and so will represent a form of problem-solving activity. The literature supporting this hypothesis was reviewed. The personal characteristics of a leader which would be likely to facilitate goal attainment and problem solving across situations were outlined as well as certain problem-specific processes. Finally, some implications of this approach to leadership identification and development were considered.

Hindsight Distortion: “I knew-it-all along and I was sure about it”1

Abstract: Hindsight distortion was examined in the context of the 1982 Hawaiian gubernatorial election by obtaining estimates from 474 persons either prior or after the election. Two motivational factors (global self-esteem and political involvement) were also measured. Despite the accuracy of subjects in foresight, hindsight distortion was demonstrated. The most pronounced effect was exhibited in the subjects' degree of confidence which was significantly (p < .0001) higher in hindsight than in foresight. There was no mediation by global self-esteem or by political involvement. The findings support that hindsight distortion occurs because of biases in information processing, rather than through mediation by motivational factors.

Chains of Command: Responsibility Attribution in Hierarchies1

Abstract: Obedience to authority involves a chain of causation whereby one party causes another to act. Theoretical problems of responsibility in chains of command were addressed and responsibility within interpersonal causal chains was investigated among a quota sample of the Boston SMSA (N= 391). Findings replicated prior investigations of attitudes about the My Lai massacre and Calley trial. Most respondents approached the incident in terms of the assertion versus denial of responsibility—assertion on the basis of personal causation, versus denial the basis of superior orders. Judgments of responsibility for other bureaucratic crimes of obedience (Watergate burglary and cover-up) or for wrongdoing in professional settings differed sharply, but tendencies to assign or reject assignment of responsibility to subordinates were consistently observable across incidents. Demographic cleavages supported earlier conclusions: More educated respondents and religious “others” (Jewish, other groups, and none) were more likely to assert individual responsibility, but education's effects were stronger for non-Catholics. The paper concludes by raising the possibility of training individuals to assert individual responsibility in the face of illegal or immoral commands from authority.

The Role of Integrative Complexity in Military Leadership: Robert E. Lee and His Opponents1

Abstract: Paragraphs selected from material written by Gen. Robert E. Lee between 1839 and 1867, and by Union generals who opposed him in six major battles, were scored for integrative complexity. This characteristic is defined by the degree of differentiation and integration that the individual demonstrates in processing information, ranging from low or simple (rigid, all-or-none, egocentric) to high or complex (flexible, information-oriented, integrated) on a 1–7 scale. Gen. Lee showed a high level of complexity as a stable characteristic, with changes downward in periods of particular stress. Lee was able to defeat superior enemy forces in battles where his level of complexity was substantially higher than that of the opposing commander; this was not the case when the levels were closer together or when (as with Grant) he faced an opponent whose complexity was actually higher than his own. These findings support previous research on the effects of stress, and emphasize the nature of information processing complexity as both a “trait” and a “state” variable.

Active Versus Passive Euthanasia: An Attributional Analysis1

Abstract: The present study investigates the way in which observers judged physicians who engaged in various acts of euthanasia. These acts varied over two dimensions: voluntary versus nonvoluntary (on the patient's part) and active versus passive (on the physician's part). Vignettes about a patient who was severely burned in an apartment fire were read by 632 subjects (199 men and 433 women). The vignettes varied the physician's actions and whether the patient requested to die or not. After reading one vignette, participants responded to a 19-item questionnaire to assess the moral evaluation, responsibility, and professional conduct of the physician. The results indicated no significant differences in the perception of the physician involved in voluntary or nonvoluntary euthanasia. The physician was perceived more negatively, held more responsible, and perceived as acting outside the standards of the medical profession in situations of active euthanasia in contrast to passive euthanasia. The data also suggested that the temporal relationship of the physician's behavior to the patient's death affected the perception of the physician's responsibility and professional conduct.

Eyewitness Testimony of Children1

Abstract: The effects of age of witness and age of suspect on eyewitness testimony were investigated. Forty-eight elementary-school children and forty-eight college students viewed a slide sequence of a mock crime. This was followed by photo identification of the suspect, descriptive and peripheral objective questions related to the crime, and a second photo identification of the suspect. The results indicated that descriptive questions were answered better than peripheral questions by adults, whereas there was no difference between question types for children. Children and adults were equally accurate in photo identification per se, but children were less stable in their choices from test to retest. There was no evidence of an interaction of age of witness with age of suspect in photo identification.

Stress and the Control Beliefs of Prisoners: A Test of Three Models of Control‐Limited Environments1

Abstract: Three models are proposed to explain the relationship between individual differences in beliefs and stress responses in control-limited environments: (1) the Environmental Incongruency, (2) Differential Stress Responses, and (3) Undifferentiated Responses. The present research examined the support for each model using inmates differing in control beliefs and prison as the control-limited environment. The results did not support either the Incongruency or the Differential models. In contrast with previous studies of control-limited environments, there was no evidence of change in passive stress responses over time in prison, but there was an increase in active responses (e.g., conflicts with other inmates) early during incarceration. As predicted by the Undifferentiated Response M odel, inmates who were more external in Locus of Control experienced significantly more active and passive stress reactions. No differences were found in stress as a function of their internal beliefs.

Pretrial Publicity, the Timing of the Trial, and Mock Jurors' Decision Processes

Abstract: Pretrial publicity and a temporal interval between the news and trial were explored for their effects upon the jury's deliberation process and verdict. Publicity (neutral, negative) and trial timing (immediate, delayed) were manipulated in a 2 × 2 design. Twenty 12-person simulated juries were exposed either to neutral or negative publicity and viewed a videotaped criminal trial immediately following news exposure or after a one-week delay between news and trial. Dichotomous pre-and postdeliberation verdicts, probability of guilt scales, trial recall, ratings of companion jurors, perceptions of attorneys, assessments of the news article, and recall of news facts were measured. Deliberations were tape recorded and content analyzed. Juries exposed to neutral and negative publicity did not significantly differ on conviction rate, deliberation length, or on quality of deliberations. Prejudicial news elicited counter remarks about the threatening nature of the publicity to the defendant's right to a fair trial. Individual juror data revealed that while the news manipulation did not significantly affect predeliberation verdicts or attention to trial events, negative news lowered jurors' probability estimates of guilt and facilitated their recall of news facts. A discriminant analysis predicting jury verdict indicated a lack of support for prior research showing damaging effects from prejudicial pretrial publicity. Findings are explored for methodological implications and for usefulness of theoretical notions of reactance, and “sleeper effects”.

Some Potential Negative Social Consequences of Cigarette Smoking: Marketing Research in Reverse1

Abstract: The effects of cigarette smoking on first impressions were examined in an interlocking series of studies. Provided college students evaluated peers who were neither extremely attractive nor unattractive, smoking typically reduced the positivity of evaluations regardless of participants' smoking. Targets photographed with smoking material were rated, for example, to be less considerate, calm, disciplined, honest, healthy, well-mannered, and happy than when smoking material was absent. Replication with apparently older participants evaluating college students did not reveal smoking to influence ratings strongly. Further replication did not reveal smoking material simply to influence college students' ratings of an attractive professional model. These results were compared with earlier studies of the effects of cigarette smoking on interpersonal evaluation and an educational unit for deterring smoking was discussed.