Acute pain is one of the most common adverse stimuli experienced by children, occurring as a result of injury, illness, and necessary medical procedures. It is associated with increased anxiety, avoidance, somatic symptoms, and increased parent distress. Despite the magnitude of effects that acute pain can have on a child, it is often inadequately assessed and treated. Numerous myths, insufficient knowledge among caregivers, and inadequate application of knowledge contribute to the lack of effective management. The pediatric acute pain experience involves the interaction of physiologic, psychologic, behavioral, developmental, and situational factors. Pain is an inherently subjective multifactorial experience and should be assessed and treated as such. Pediatricians are responsible for eliminating or assuaging pain and suffering in children when possible. To accomplish this, pediatricians need to expand their knowledge, use appropriate assessment tools and techniques, anticipate painful experiences and intervene accordingly, use a multimodal approach to pain management, use a multidisciplinary approach when possible, involve families, and advocate for the use of effective pain management in children.

The Assessment and Management of Acute Pain in Infants, Children, and Adolescents

T hese recommendations are intended to provide information and advice for clinicians who deliver end-of-life care in intensive care units (ICUs). The number of deaths that occur in the ICU after the withdrawal of life support is increasing, with one recent survey finding that 90% of patients who die in ICUs now do so after a decision to limit therapy (1). Although there is significant variability in the frequency of withdrawal of life support both within countries (2) and among cultures (3), the general trend is international in scope (4). Nevertheless, most evidence indicates that patients and families remain dissatisfied with the care they receive once a decision has been made to withdraw life support (5). Although intensive care clinicians traditionally have seen their goals as curing disease and restoring health and function, these goals must now expand when necessary to also include assuring patients of a “good death.” Just as developments in knowledge and technology have dramatically enhanced our ability to restore patients to health, similar developments now make it possible for almost all patients to have a death that is dignified and free from pain. The management of patients at the end of life can be divided into two phases. The first concerns the process of shared decision-making that leads from the pursuit of cure or recovery to the pursuit of comfort and freedom from pain. The second concerns the actions that are taken once this shift in goals has been made and focuses on both the humanistic and technical skills that must be enlisted to ensure that the needs of the patient and family are met. Although both of these issues are critically important in end-oflife care, the decision-making process is not unique to the ICU environment and has been addressed by others (6 –11). These recommendations, therefore, do not deal primarily with the process that leads to the decision to forego lifeprolonging treatments but rather focus on the implementation of that decision, with particular emphasis on the ICU environment. This division of the process into two phases is necessarily somewhat artificial. Patients and families do not suddenly switch from the hope for survival and cure to the acceptance of death and pursuit of comfort. This process happens gradually over varying periods of time ranging from hours to weeks. Similarly, the forgoing of life-sustaining treatments rarely happens all at once and is likewise a stepwise process that parallels the shift in goals. Although acknowledging the relationship between the process of decision-making and the corresponding actions, these guidelines will focus on the latter. These recommendations are written from the emerging perspective that palliative care and intensive care are not mutually exclusive options but rather should be coexistent (12–14). All intensive care patients are at an increased risk of mortality and can benefit from inclusion of the principles of palliative care in their management. The degree to which treatments are focused on cure vs. palliation depends on the clinical situation, but in principle both are always present to some degree. Figure 1 illustrates a useful paradigm for the integration of palliative care and curative care over the course of a patient’s illness. Although many patients are best served by transfer to other environments (e.g., home, hospice, or ward) that may be more conducive to palliative care, some patients are so dependent on ICU technology at the end of life that transfer is not possible. For those who are expected to survive for only a short time after the removal of life-sustaining technology, transfer of the patient to a new environment with new caregivers is awkward and may disrupt the patient’s medical care. For these reasons, among others, intensive care clinicians must become as skilled and knowledgeable at forgoing life-sustaining treatments as they are at delivering care aimed at survival and cure.

/pdf/recommendations-for-end-of-life-care-in-the-intensive-care-2eg3yvite8.pdf

Recommendations for end-of-life care in the intensive care unit: The Ethics Committee of the Society of Critical Care Medicine.

Clinical and laboratory investigations of neonatal pain suggest that preterm neonates have an increased sensitivity to pain and that acute painful stimuli lead to the development of prolonged periods of hyperalgesia. Non-noxious stimuli during these periods of hyperalgesia may expose preterm neonates to established or chronic pain. Acute physiologic changes caused by painful or stressful stimuli can be implicated as important factors in the causation or subsequent extension of early intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH) or the ischemic changes leading to periventricular leukomalacia (PVL). Therapeutic interventions that provide comfort/analgesia in preterm neonates were correlated with a decreased incidence of severe IVH. Long-term follow-up studies of preterm neonates may substantiate the preliminary data associating repetitive painful experiences with some of the neurobehavioral and developmental sequelae resulting from neonatal intensive care.

Clinical importance of pain and stress in preterm neonates

The treatment of pain in infants and children has often been insufficient, owing to lack of information and understanding of how to use analgesic agents in the very young. This review discusses the development of nociception; the differences in metabolism of analgesics among infants, children, and adults; and agents that can be used for pain control in a variety of settings.

Analgesics for the Treatment of Pain in Children

https://www.annemergmed.com/article/S0196-0644(04)01464-7/pdf

Pediatric procedural pain.

It has long been recognized that patients receive less relief from pain than they should1,2. A recent review concluded that pain can be relieved effectively in 90 percent of patients but is not relieved effectively in 80 percent of patients3. The tendency toward undermedication for pain is even more pronounced in children than in adults4. There are large discrepancies between the amounts of postoperative analgesia ordered for and administered to adults and those ordered for and administered to children who have the same diagnoses and have undergone the same procedures5,6. Interest in pain control . . .

Robert C. Cassidy

Papers

Pain, Hurt, and Harm -- The Ethics of Pain Control in Infants and Children

Pediatric Pain: Ethical issues and Ethical Management