The transplutonium elements (Seaborg et al, 1949a, b)—formed from plutonium by sequential neutron captures and beta-particle decays—are among the most hazardous by-products of nuclear power generation (E D Arnold, 1970) In his preliminary reports of the first biological studies with americium and curium, Hamilton (1947, 1948) pointed out the potential dangers of the actinide elements; “They share the radioactive and metabolic characteristics of radium—alpha-particle emission, long physical half-lives, and selective deposition in and prolonged retention in the skeleton” When these experiments were begun in 1946 (Scott et al, 1948a, 1949), only a few milligrams of americium and curium existed They were scientific curiosities, and the time when they might be serious biological problems seemed very remote

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Metabolism and Biological Effects of the Transplutonium Elements

PLUTONIUM C-2 APPENDIX C D H H S D N A D O D D O E D O L D O T D O T / U N / N A / I M D G D W E L E C D E C G / E K G E E G E E G L E P A F F i F A O F D A F E M A F I F R A F P D f p m F R F S H g G C g d G L C G P C G S D G y H P L C H R G C H S D B I A R C I C R P I D L H I L O I R I S I T R I k B q K d k g k k g K o c K ow L L C L C 50 L C l o LD50 D e p a r t m e n t o f H e a l t h a n d H u m a n S e r v i c e s d e o x y r i b o n u c l e i c a c i d D e p a r t m e n t o f D e f e n s e D e p a r t m e n t o f E n e r g y D e p a r t m e n t o f L a b o r D e p a r t m e n t o f T r a n s p o r t a t i o n D e p a r t m e n t o f T r a n s p o r t a t i o n / U n i t e d N a t i o n s / N o r t h A m e r i c a / I n t e r g o v e r n m e n t a l M a r i t i m e D a n g e r o u s G o o d s C o d e d r i n k i n g w a t e r e x p o s u r e l e v e l e l e c t r o n c a p t u r e d e t e c t i o n e l e c t r o c a r d i o g r a m e l e c t r o e n c e p h a l o g r a m E m e r g e n c y E x p o s u r e G u i d a n c e L e v e l E n v i r o n m e n t a l P r o t e c t i o n A g e n c y F a h r e n h e i t f i r s t f i l i a l g e n e r a t i o n F o o d a n d A g r i c u l t u r a l O r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s F o o d a n d D r u g A d m i n i s t r a t i o n F e d e r a l E m e r g e n c y M a n a g e m e n t A g e n c y F e d e r a l I n s e c t i c i d e , F u n g i c i d e , a n d R o d e n t i c i d e A c t f l a m e p h o t o m e t r i c d e t e c t i o n f e e t p e r m i n u t e F e d e r a l R e g i s t e r f o l l i c l e s t i m u l a t i n g h o r m o n e g r a m g a s c h r o m a t o g r a p h y g e s t a t i o n a l d a y g a s l i q u i d c h r o m a t o g r a p h y g e l p e r m e a t i o n c h r o m a t o g r a p h y g e o m e t r i c s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n g r a y h i g h p e r f o r m a n c e l i q u i d c h r o m a t o g r a p h y h i g h r e s o l u t i o n g a s c h r o m a t o g r a p h y H a z a r d o u s S u b s t a n c e D a t a B a n k I n t e r n a t i o n a l A g e n c y f o r R e s e a r c h o n C a n c e r I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o m m i s s i o n o n R a d i o l o g i c a l P r o t e c t i o n i m m e d i a t e l y d a n g e r o u s t o l i f e a n d h e a l t h I n t e r n a t i o n a l L a b o r O r g a n i z a t i o n I n t e g r a t e d R i s k I n f o r m a t i o n S y s t e m I n h a l a t i o n T o x i c o l o g y R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e k i l o B e q u e r e l a d s o r p t i o n r a t i o k i l o g r a m m e t r i c t o n o r g a n i c c a r b o n p a r t i t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t o c t a n o l w a t e r p a r t i t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t l i t e r l i q u i d c h r o m a t o g r a p h y l e t h a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n , 5 0 % k i l l l e t h a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n , l o w l e t h a l d o s e , 5 0 % k i l l PLUTONIUM C-3 APPENDIX C LDl o lethal dose, low LDH lactic dehydrogenase LH luteinizing hormone LOAEL lowest-observed-adverse-effect level LSE Levels o f Significant Exposure LT5 0 lethal time, 50% kill m meter MA trans,trans'-muconic acid MAL maximum allowable level mCi millicurie MCL maximum contaminant level MCLG maximum contaminant level goal MF modifying factor MFO mixed function oxidase mg milligram mL milliliter mm millimeter MMD mass median diameter mmHg millimeters o f mercury mmol millimole mppcf millions o f particles per cubic foot MRL Minimal Risk Level MS mass spectrometry NAAQS National Ambient Air Quality Standard NAS National Academy of Science NATICH National Air Toxics Information Clearinghouse NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization NCE normochromatic erythrocytes NCEH National Center for Environmental Health NCI National Cancer Institute NCRP National Council on Radiation Protection ND not detected NFPA National Fire Protection Association ng nanogram NHANES National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey NIEHS National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences NIOSH National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health NIOSHTIC NIOSH's Computerized Information Retrieval System NLM National Library of Medicine nm nanometer nmol nanomole NOAEL no-observed-adverse-effect level NOES National Occupational Exposure Survey NOHS National Occupational Hazard Survey NPD nitrogen phosphorus detection NPDES National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System NPL National Priorities List NR not reported NRC National Research Council NS not specified NSPS New Source Performance Standards PLUTONIUM C-4 APPENDIX C N T I S N a t i o n a l T e c h n i c a l I n f o r m a t i o n S e r v i c e N T P N a t i o n a l T o x i c o l o g y P r o g r a m O D W O f f i c e o f D r i n k i n g W a t e r , E P A O E R R O f f i c e o f E m e r g e n c y a n d R e m e d i a l R e s p o n s e , E P A O H M / T A D S O i l a n d H a z a r d o u s M a t e r i a l s / T e c h n i c a l A s s i s t a n c e D a t a S y s t O P P O f f i c e o f P e s t i c i d e P r o g r a m s , E P A O P P T O f f i c e o f P o l l u t i o n P r e v e n t i o n a n d T o x i c s , E P A O P P T S O f f i c e o f P r e v e n t i o n , P e s t i c i d e s a n d T o x i c S u b s t a n c e s , E P A O R o d d s r a t i o O S H A O c c u p a t i o n a l S a f e t y a n d H e a l t h A d m i n i s t r a t i o n O S W O f f i c e o f S o l i d W a s t e , E P A O T S O f f i c e o f T o x i c S u b s t a n c e s O W O f f i c e o f W a t e r O W R S O f f i c e o f W a t e r R e g u l a t i o n s a n d S t a n d a r d s , E P A P A H p o l y c y c l i c a r o m a t i c h y d r o c a r b o n P B B K p h y s i o l o g i c a l l y b a s e d b i o k i n e t i c P B P D p h y s i o l o g i c a l l y b a s e d p h a r m a c o d y n a m i c P B P K p h y s i o l o g i c a l l y b a s e d p h a r m a c o k i n e t i c P C E p o l y c h r o m a t i c e r y t h r o c y t e s P E L p e r m i s s i b l e e x p o s u r e l i m i t p g p i c o g r a m P H S P u b l i c H e a l t h S e r v i c e P I D p h o t o i o n i z a t i o n d e t e c t o r p m o l p i c o m o l e P M R p r o p o r t i o n a t e m o r t a l i t y r a t i o P N L P a c i f i c N o r t h w e s t L a b o r a t o r y p p b p a r t s p e r b i l l i o n p p m p a r t s p e r m i l l i o n p p t p a r t s p e r t r i l l i o n P S N S p r e t r e a t m e n t s t a n d a r d s f o r n e w s o u r c e s R B C r e d b l o o d c e l l R E L r e c o m m e n d e d e x p o s u r e l e v e l / l i m i t R f C r e f e r e n c e c o n c e n t r a t i o n R f D r e f e r e n c e d o s e R N A r i b o n u c l e i c a c i d R Q r e p o r t a b l e q u a n t i t y R T E C S R e g i s t r y o f T o x i c E f f e c t s o f C h e m i c a l S u b s t a n c e s S A R A S u p e r f u n d A m e n d m e n t s a n d R e a u t h o r i z a t i o n A c t S C E s i s t e r c h r o m a t i d e x c h a n g e S D s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n S E s t a n d a r d e r r o r S G O T s e r u m g l u t a m i c o x a l o a c e t i c t r a n s a m i n a s e S G P T s e r u m g l u t a m i c p y r u v i c t r a n s a m i n a s e S I C s t a n d a r d i n d u s t r i a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n S I M s e l e c t e d i o n m o n i t o r i n g S M C L s e c o n d a r y m a x i m u m c o n t a m i n a n t l e v e l S M R s t a n d a r d i z e d m o r t a l i t y r a t i o S N A R L s u g g e s t e d n o a d v e r s e r e s p o n s e l e v e l S P E G L S h o r t T e r m P u b l i c E m e r g e n c y G u i d a n c e L e v e l S T E L s h o r t t e r m e x p o s u r e l i m i t S T O R E T S t o r a g e a n d R e t r i e v a l PLUTONIUM C-5 APPENDIX C S v s i e v e r t T D 5 0 t o x i c d o s e , 5 0 % s p e c i f i c t o x i c e f f e c t T L V t h r e s h o l d l i m i t v a l u e T O C t o t a l o r g a n i c c a r b o n T P Q t h r e s h o l d p l a n n i n g q u a n t i t y T R I T o x i c s R e l e a s e I n v e n t o r y T S C A T o x i c S u b s t a n c e s C o n t r o l A c t T W A t i m e w e i g h t e d a v e r a g e U F u n c e r t a i n t y f a c t o r U . S . U n i t e d S t a t e s U S D A U n i t e d S t a t e s D e p a r t m e n t o f A g r i c u l t u r e U S G S U n i t e d S t a t e s G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y U S N R C U n i t e d S t a t e s N u c l e a r R e g u l a t o r y C o m m i s s i o n V O C v o l a t i l e o r g a n i c c o m p o u n d W B C w h i t e b l o o d c e l l W H O W o r l d H e a l t h O r g a n i z a t i o n PLUTONIUM C-6 APPENDIX C > g r e a t e r t h a n > g r e a t e r t h a n o r e q u a l t o = e q u a l t o < l e s s t h a n < l e s s t h a n o r e q u a l t o % p e r c e n t a a l p h a ß b e t a Y g a m m a 5 d e l t a ^ m m i c r o m e t e r M g, m i c r o g r a m q i * c a n c e r s l o p e f a c t o r n e g a t i v e + p o s i t i v e ( + ) w e a k l y p o s i t i v e r e s u l t ( ) w e a k l y n e g a t i v e r e s u l t

Toxicological profile for plutonium

The authors conducted a nested case-control study of the association between lung cancer mortality and cumulative internal lung doses among a cohort of workers employed at the Rocky Flats Plant in Colorado from 1951 to 1989. Cases (n = 180) were individually matched with controls (n = 720) on age, sex, and birth year. Annual doses to the lung from plutonium, americium, and uranium isotopes were calculated for each worker with an internal dosimetry model. Lung cancer risk was elevated among workers with cumulative internal lung doses of more than 400 mSv in several different analytical models. The dose-response relation was not consistent at high doses. Restricting analysis to those employed for 15-25 years produced a statistically significant linear trend with dose (chi-square = 67.2, p < 0.001), suggesting a strong healthy worker survivor effect. The association between age at first internal lung dose and lung cancer mortality was statistically significant (odds ratio = 1.05, 95% confidence interval: 1.01, 1.10). No associations were found between lung cancer mortality and cumulative external penetrating radiation dose or cumulative exposures to asbestos, beryllium, hexavalent chromium, or nickel.

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Lung Cancer and Internal Lung Doses among Plutonium Workers at the Rocky Flats Plant: A Case-Control Study

Environmental plutonium in humans

Sixteen isotopes of plutonium are known, (Lederer et al., 1967). These are listed in Table 10.1. Only two of these are at present recognised as of biological importance. Plutonium-239 is used increasingly for industrial and military purposes and its biological effects have therefore been the subject of intense study. Plutonium-238 also has practical applications which have encouraged some analyses of its metabolic and biological effects. The shorter-lived 237Pu, it has been suggested, may have value in metabolic studies.

Distribution, Excretion and Effects of Plutonium as a Bone-Seeker

This report is the final presentation of the results of twelve plutonium tracer cases studied as a joint project of the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory of the University of California and the Atomic Energy Project of the University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry. The results of the studies conducted by the Berkeley and Chicago groups are correlated with the present ones providing a collection of data from sixteen cases. In addition to the twelve tracer cases mentioned above, the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory has had approximately six years experience with exposure problems associated with the processing of large amounts of plutonium. Wherever applicable, the Laboratory's experiences with the exposure of personnel are used to enlarge and supplement the data collected from the plutonium tracer studies presented in this report. 21 refs., 2 figs., 10 tabs.

Robert E. Carter

Papers

Distribution and Excretion of Plutonium Administered Intravenously to Man

The effect of vitamin B12 on the leukopenia induced by radiation.