Nitrogen is a key element controlling the species composition, diversity, dynamics, and functioning of many terrestrial, freshwater, and marine ecosystems. Many of the original plant species living in these ecosystems are adapted to, and function optimally in, soils and solutions with low levels of available nitrogen. The growth and dynamics of herbivore populations, and ultimately those of their predators, also are affected by N. Agriculture, combustion of fossil fuels, and other human activities have altered the global cycle of N substantially, generally increasing both the availability and the mobility of N over large regions of Earth. The mobility of N means that while most deliberate applications of N occur locally, their influence spreads regionally and even globally. Moreover, many of the mobile forms of N themselves have environmental consequences. Although most nitrogen inputs serve human needs such as agricultural production, their environmental conse- quences are serious and long term. Based on our review of available scientific evidence, we are certain that human alterations of the nitrogen cycle have: 1) approximately doubled the rate of nitrogen input into the terrestrial nitrogen cycle, with these rates still increasing; 2) increased concentrations of the potent greenhouse gas N 2O globally, and increased concentrations of other oxides of nitrogen that drive the formation of photochemical smog over large regions of Earth; 3) caused losses of soil nutrients, such as calcium and potassium, that are essential for the long-term maintenance of soil fertility; 4) contributed substantially to the acidification of soils, streams, and lakes in several regions; and 5) greatly increased the transfer of nitrogen through rivers to estuaries and coastal oceans. In addition, based on our review of available scientific evidence we are confident that human alterations of the nitrogen cycle have: 6) increased the quantity of organic carbon stored within terrestrial ecosystems; 7) accelerated losses of biological diversity, especially losses of plants adapted to efficient use of nitrogen, and losses of the animals and microorganisms that depend on them; and 8) caused changes in the composition and functioning of estuarine and nearshore ecosystems, and contributed to long-term declines in coastal marine fisheries.

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Human alteration of the global nitrogen cycle: sources and consequences

This paper contrasts the natural and anthropogenic controls on the conversion of unreactive N2 to more reactive forms of nitrogen (Nr). A variety of data sets are used to construct global N budgets for 1860 and the early 1990s and to make projections for the global N budget in 2050. Regional N budgets for Asia, North America, and other major regions for the early 1990s, as well as the marine N budget, are presented to highlight the dominant fluxes of nitrogen in each region. Important findings are that human activities increasingly dominate the N budget at the global and at most regional scales, the terrestrial and open ocean N budgets are essentially dis- connected, and the fixed forms of N are accumulating in most environmental reservoirs. The largest uncertainties in our understanding of the N budget at most scales are the rates of natural biological nitrogen fixation, the amount of Nr storage in most environmental reservoirs, and the production rates of N2 by denitrification.

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Nitrogen cycles: past, present, and future

Food production requires application of fertilizers containing phosphorus, nitrogen and potassium on agricultural fields in order to sustain crop yields. However modern agriculture is dependent on phosphorus derived from phosphate rock, which is a non-renewable resource and current global reserves may be depleted in 50–100 years. While phosphorus demand is projected to increase, the expected global peak in phosphorus production is predicted to occur around 2030. The exact timing of peak phosphorus production might be disputed, however it is widely acknowledged within the fertilizer industry that the quality of remaining phosphate rock is decreasing and production costs are increasing. Yet future access to phosphorus receives little or no international attention. This paper puts forward the case for including long-term phosphorus scarcity on the priority agenda for global food security. Opportunities for recovering phosphorus and reducing demand are also addressed together with institutional challenges.

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The story of phosphorus: Global food security and food for thought

Vol. 9 Issue 1 pp. 000‐000 There is a growing need for integrating environmentally sound choices into supply-chain management research and practice. Perusal of the literature shows that a broad frame of reference for green supply-chain management (GrSCM) is not adequately developed. Regulatory bodies that formulate regulations to meet societal and ecological concerns to facilitate growth of business and economy also suffer from its absence. A succinct classification to help academicians, researchers and practitioners in understanding integrated GrSCM from a wider perspective is needed. Further, sufficient literature is available to warrant such classification. This paper takes an integrated and fresh look into the area of GrSCM. The literature on GrSCM is covered exhaustively from its conceptualization, primarily taking a ‘reverse logistics angle’. Using the rich body of available literature, including earlier reviews that had relatively limited perspectives, the literature on GrSCM is classified on the basis of the problem context in supply chain’s major influential areas. It is also classified on the basis of methodology and approach adopted. Various mathematical tools/techniques used in literature vis-a-vis the contexts of GrSCM are mapped. A timeline indicating relevant papers is also provided as a ready reference. Finally, the findings and interpretations are summarized, and the main research issues and opportunities are highlighted.

Green supply‐chain management: A state‐of‐the‐art literature review

The article is intended as a contribution to the ongoing conceptual development of corporate sustainability. At the business level sustainability is often equated with eco-efficiency. However, such a reduction misses several important criteria that firms have to satisfy if they want to become truly sustainable.

This article discusses how the concept of sustainable development has evolved over the past three decades and particularly how it can be applied to the business level. It then goes on to describe the three types of capital relevant within the concept of corporate sustainability: economic, natural and social capital.

From this basis we shall then develop the six criteria managers aiming for corporate sustainability will have to satisfy: eco-efficiency, socio-efficiency, eco-effectiveness, socio-effectiveness, sufficiency and ecological equity. The article ends with a brief outlook towards future research. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. and ERP Environment

Beyond the business case for corporate sustainability

Production, Consumption, and Externalities

Part 1 General Implications: Industrial metabolism - theory and policy industrial restructuring in industrial countries The case of India Evolution, sustainability and industrial metabolism. Patr 2 Case Studies: Sweden 1880-1980 The Rhine Basin Switzerland United States 1880-1980. Part 3 Further Implications: The precaution principle in environmental management, Transfer of clean(er) technologies to developing countries A plethora of paradigms.

Industrial Metabolism: Restructuring for Sustainable Development

Part 1 Context and history: industrial ecology - goals and definitions, Reid Lifset and Thomas E. Graedel exploring the history of industrial metabolism, Marina Fischer-Kowalski the recent history of industrial ecology, Suren Erkman industrial ecology and cleaner production, Tim Jackson on industrial ecosystems, Robert U. Ayres industrial ecology - governance, laws and regulations, Braden R. Allenby industrial ecology and industrial metabolism - use and misuse of metaphors, Allan Johansson. Part 2 Methodology: material flow analysis, Stefan Bringezu and Yuichi Moriguchi substance flow analysis (SFA) methodology, Ester van der Voet physical input-output accounting, Gunter Strassert process analysis approach to industrial ecology, Urmila Diwekar and Mitchell Small industrial ecology and life cycle assessment, Helias A. Udo de Haes impact evaluation in industrial ecology, Bengt Steen. Part 3 Economics and industrial ecology: environmental accounting and material flow analysis, Peter Bartelmus materials flow analysis (MFA) and economic modelling, Karin Ibenholt exergy flows in the economy -efficiency and dematerialization, Robert U. Ayres transmaterialization, Walter C. Labys dematerialization and rematerialization as two recurring phenomena of industrial ecology, Sabder De Bruyn optimal resource extraction, Matthias Ruth industrial ecology and technology policy - Japanese experience, Chihiro Watanabe. Part 4 Industrial ecology at the national/regional level: global biogeochemical cycles, Vaclav Smil material flow accounts - the United States and the world, Donald G. Rogich and Grecia R. Matos industrial ecology -analyses for sustainable resource and materials management in Germany and Europe, Stefan Bringezu material flow analysis and industrial ecology studies in Japan, Yuichi Moriguchi industrial ecology - an Australian case study, Andria Durney industrial ecology - United Kingdom, Heinz Schandl and Niels Schulz industrial symbiosis - the legacy of Kalundborg, John R. Ehrenfeld and Marian R. Chertow. Part 5 Industrial ecology at the sectoral/materials level: material flows due to mining and urbanization, Ian Douglas and Nigel Lawson long term world metal use - application of industrial ecology in a system-dynamics model, Detlef P. van Vuuren et al risks of metal flows and accumulation, Jeroen B. Guinee and Ester van der Voet material constraints on technology evolution - the case of scarce metals and emerging energy technologies, Bjorn A. Andersson and Ingrid Rade wastes as raw materials, David T. Allen heavy metals in agrosystems, Simon W. Moolenaar industrial ecology and automotive systems, Thomas E. Graedel et al the information industry, Brande R. Allenby. Part 6 Applications and policy implications: industrial ecology and green design, Chris T. Hendrickson et al industrial ecology and risk analysis, Paul R. Kleindorfer industrial ecology and spatial planning, Clinton J. Andrews industrial estates as model eco

A handbook of industrial ecology

The scale of environmental impacts associated with the manufacture of microchips is characterized through analysis of material and energy inputs into processes in the production chain. The total weight of secondary fossil fuel and chemical inputs to produce and use a single 2-gram 32MB DRAM chip are estimated at 1600 g and 72 g, respectively. Use of water and elemental gases (mainly N2) in the fabrication stage are 32 000 and 700 g per chip, respectively. The production chain yielding silicon wafers from quartz uses 160 times the energy required for typical silicon, indicating that purification to semiconductor grade materials is energy intensive. Due to its extremely low- entropy, organized structure, the materials intensity of a microchip is orders of magnitude higher than that of "traditional" goods. Future analysis of semiconductor and other low entropy high-tech goods needs to include the use of secondary materials, especially for purification.

The 1.7 kilogram microchip: energy and material use in the production of semiconductor devices.

http://www.postpeakliving.com/downloads/Ayres-TheRoleOfPhysicalWork.pdf

Robert U. Ayres

Papers

Production, Consumption, and Externalities

Industrial Metabolism: Restructuring for Sustainable Development

A handbook of industrial ecology

The 1.7 kilogram microchip: energy and material use in the production of semiconductor devices.

Accounting for growth: the role of physical work