Much of social life involves interactions between individuals or corporate actors in dyads, groups, organizations or networks that can be viewed as social exchanges. This chapter presents an overview of the main theories of social exchange focusing on the key contributors in sociology, including George Homans, Peter Blau, Richard M. Emerson and those whose work subsequently built on their original formulations. The theories that have been developed in recent decades have focused on the social structures created by repeated exchanges and the ways in which these structures both constrain and enable actors to exercise power and influence. Other related social processes addressed within the exchange tradition include interpersonal commitment, trust, fairness, procedural and distributive justice, coalition formation and collective action. Recent work also focuses on emotions and their role in social exchange. The methodological challenges of studying social exchange in the laboratory and in the world outside the lab are addressed as well as links between exchange theory and topics under study by economic sociologists and network scholars more broadly, including Internet-mediated exchanges and their growing significance.

Social Exchange Theory.

Although much has been learned from cross-sectional research on marriage, an understanding of how marriages develop, succeed, and fail is best achieved with longitudinal data. In view of growing interest in longitudinal research on marriage, the authors reviewed and evaluated the literature on how the quality and stability of marriages change over time. First, prevailing theoretical perspectives are examined for their ability to explain change in marital quality and stability. Second, the methods and findings of 115 longitudinal studies--representing over 45,000 marriages--are summarized and evaluated, yielding specific suggestions for improving this research, Finally, a model is outlined that integrates the strengths of previous theories of marriage, accounts for established findings, and indicates new directions for research on how marriages change.

The longitudinal course of marital quality and stability: A review of theory, methods, and research.

Meta-analyses of sex differences in physical aggression to heterosexual partners and in its physical consequences are reported. Women were slightly more likely (d = -.05) than men to use one or more act of physical aggression and to use such acts more frequently. Men were more likely (d =. 15) to inflict an injury, and overall, 62% of those injured by a partner were women. The findings partially support previous claims that different methods of measurement produce conflicting results, but there was also evidence that the sample was an important moderator of effect size. Continuous models showed that younger aged dating samples and a lower proportion of physically aggressive males predicted effect sizes in the female direction. Analyses were limited by the available database, which is biased toward young dating samples in the United States. Wider variations are discussed in terms of two conflicting norms about physical aggression to partners that operate to different degrees in different cultures.

/pdf/sex-differences-in-aggression-between-heterosexual-partners-2bwmfkidg7.pdf

Sex differences in aggression between heterosexual partners: a meta-analytic review.

This article tackles two distinct types of couple violence occurring within families in the US and other Western countries. A review of data from a large sample survey and of qualitative and quantitative data collected from womens shelters indicates that some families suffer from occasional display of violence from either husbands or wives (common couple violence) while other families are terrorized by systematic male violence (patriarchal terrorism). Findings of national survey also reveal the incidences of spouse abuse perpetrated by either the husband or the wife in contrast to the reports received in shelter homes with high incidence of women abuse. The differences in the gender pattern of violence between the national surveys and the statistics collected by public agencies are due to their nonoverlapping of variables. Further discussed are per couple frequency patterns of behavior in terms of escalation and reciprocity and initiation of violence. Arguments are presented regarding the validity of two radically different descriptions of the nature of couple violence in the US. Finally the study emphasized that the difference between common couple violence and patriarchal terrorism is important due to its implications for the establishment of public policy the development of educational programs and intervention strategies and the development of theories of interpersonal violence.

Patriarchal terrorism and common couple violence: two forms of violence against women

Recent years have witnessed a proliferation of research on close relationships and the emergence of a new relationship subdiscipline within the social sciences. To date, the new science of relationships has been dominated by data. This article is based on the conviction that progress now hinges on the development of theory to organize and interpret extant findings and to guide future investigations. Through a selective but extensive review of the major bodies of empirical literature, we attempt to show that attachment theory can incorporate a broad range of findings on adult relationships. In addition, attachment theory addresses an impressive array of research questions concerning the functions, emotional dynamics, evolutionary origins, and developmental pathways of human affectional bonds. We conclude that a comprehensive theory of close relationships is both desirable and, with the integration of existing theories and concepts, currently achievable.

Attachment as an Organizational Framework for Research on Close Relationships

Recent data verifying a substantial amount of violence in dating relationships have presented a new challenge to the romantic love model. This study, which investigates abuse between high school couples, confirms the existence of violence among younger partners and describes their reactions to those abusive events. Findings suggest that violence is viewed by participating individuals as relatively nondisruptive to the relationship and sometimes is even seen as a positive occurrence. Discussion centers on how romance and violence coexist.

Romance and Violence in Dating Relationships

Little research has examined the incidence and dynamics of abuse between premarital partners at all levels of commitment. The present questionnaire study found the incidence of premarital abuse to be substantial and largely reciprocal in nature. Abuse typically began after some degree of commitment was established. Abuse was usually seen as caused by anger, although the effect of abuse on the relationship was not routinely seen as detrimental. It appeared that one possible explanation for abuse in these relationships was that those who stayed in abusive situations reported having fewer alternatives to the violent relationship than those who had terminated an abusive liaison. In general, the respondents had negative attitudes toward violence in relationships. However, those who had experienced abuse were more accepting of violence than those who had not experienced premarital abuse. The discussion focuses on several suggestions for further research to construct a clearer picture of premarital abuse.

Premarital Abuse: A Social Psychological Perspective

The purpose of the present study is to examine (a) the degree to which people perceive equity and equality to coexist in their relationships, and (b) the relative ability of equity, equality, and reward level to predict relationship satisfaction. First, 337 individuals were asked to assess their current dating relationships in terms of equity, equality, reward level, and satisfaction. Second, some of the data from the Walster, Walster, and Traupmann (1978) study concerning equity and relationship satisfaction were reanalyzed. Results from the present data and the Walster et al. data indicate that the concurrence of equity and equality (or inequity and nonequality) is very high. In addition, analyses of the present data reveal that reward level is superior to equity and equality in predicting relationship satisfaction. The results point to a need for longitudinal assessment of relationships in order to understand the apparently dynamic nature of reward allocation in relationships.

Fairness and Reward Level as Predictors of Relationship Satisfaction

The results of the present study show that premarital conflict is a precursor of marital conflict and that, while it does not relate to the feelings that partners report having about one another premaritally, it does predict the extent to which they are satisfied once they have been married about two and a half years. Twenty-one newlyweds provided detailed time-ordered descriptions of their courtships, dividing them into three stages of involvement - casual dating, serious dating, and commitment to marriage. With the events of the courtship fresh in their minds, they were asked to think about the time period of each stage in turn, and to fill out a questionnaire designed to measure: (1) love, (2) ambivalence, (3) conflict and (4) maintenance behaviours (e.g., attempts at problem-solving). Approximately two years later they completed the same scales, as well as a measure of marital satisfaction and adjustment. Premarital conflict was generally the strongest predictor of patterns of marital involvement, but...

Premarital Relationship Correlates of the Erosion of Satisfaction in Marriage

This article is a review of the theory and recent literature on premarital relationship stability. First, current theories and models that have been used to explain the development of premarital relationships are discussed. Second, research since 1990 that focuses on the individual, dyadic, and social network factors that predict premarital relationship stability is presented. Third, we integrate the findings of the review into a commitment model and make some brief observations about theoretical, conceptual, and methodological issues that must be addressed to further understand the development of premarital relationships.

Rodney M. Cate

Papers

Romance and Violence in Dating Relationships

Premarital Abuse: A Social Psychological Perspective

Fairness and Reward Level as Predictors of Relationship Satisfaction

Premarital Relationship Correlates of the Erosion of Satisfaction in Marriage

Premarital Relationship Stability: A Review of Recent Research