Coffee is one of the most important globally traded commodities and substantially contributes to the livelihoods of millions of smallholders worldwide. As a climate-sensitive perennial crop, coffee is likely to be highly susceptible to changes in climate. Using a systematic approach, we explore evidence from the published academic literature of the influence of climate change and variability, specifically drought, on coffee production. A number of mostly negative impacts were reported in the current literature, including declines in coffee yield, loss of coffee-optimal areas with significant impacts on major global coffee-producing countries and growth in the distribution of pest and disease that indirectly influence coffee cultivation. Current research also identified positive effects of climate change such as increases in coffee-producing niche, particularly in areas at higher altitudes; however, whether these gains might offset losses from other production areas requires further investigation. Other advantages include increases in pollination services and the beneficial effects of elevated carbon concentration, leading to potential yield improvements. Future priorities should focus on major coffee-growing regions projected to be adversely affected by climate change, with specific attention given to potential adaptation strategies tailored to particular farming conditions such as relocation of coffee plantations to more climatically suitable areas, irrigation and agroforestry. The majority of studies were based in the Americas and concentrated on Arabica coffee. A broader spread of research is therefore required, especially for the large growing regions in Asia and for Robusta coffee, to support sustainable production of the global coffee industry.

The impact of climate change and variability on coffee production: a systematic review

Crop sustainability can be threatened by new environmental challenges regarding predicted climate changes and global warming. Therefore, the study of real biological impacts of future environmental conditions (e.g., increased air [CO2], supra-optimal temperature and water scarcity) on crop plants, as well as the re-evaluation of management procedures and strategies, must be undertaken in order to improve crop adaptation and promote mitigation of negative environmental impacts, thus affording crop resilience. Coffee is a tropical crop that is grown in more than 80 countries, making it one of the world's most traded agricultural products, while involving millions of people worldwide in the whole chain of value. It has been argued that this crop will be highly affected by climate changes, resulting in decreases in both suitable areas for cultivation and productivity, as well as impaired beverage quality in the near future. Here, we report recent findings regarding coffee species exposure to combined supra-optimal air temperatures and enhanced air [CO2], and impacts of drought stress on the crop. Ultimately, we discuss key strategies to improve coffee performance in the context of new environmental scenarios. The recent findings clearly show that high [CO2] has a positive impact on coffee plants, increasing their tolerance to high temperatures. This has been related to a better plant vigor, to the triggering of protective mechanisms, and to a higher functional status of the photosynthetic machinery. Even so, coffee plant is expected to suffer from water scarcity in a changing world. Therefore, discussion is focused on some important management strategies (e.g., shade systems, crop management and soil covering and terracing), which can be implemented to improve coffee performance and sustain coffee production in a continually changing environment.

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Mitigation of the Negative Impact of Warming on the Coffee Crop: The Role of Increased Air [CO2] and Management Strategies

R E G U L A R A R T I C L E *Corresponding author: Fábio Luiz Partelli, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo, Centro Universitário Norte do Espírito Santo, Departamento de Ciências Agrárias e Biológicas, Bairro Litorâneo, CEP: 29932-540, São Mateus, Espírito Santo, Brazil. E-mail: partelli@yahoo.com.br Received: 03 February 2016; Revised: 10 March 2016; Accepted: 13 March 2016; Published Online: 21 April 2016 Covre, et al.: Nutrient in bean and fruit from Coffea canephora Emir. J. Food Agric ● Vol 28 ● Issue 6 ● 2016 403 Serrano et al., 2011; Partelli et al., 2014.). The retained nutrient amounts by coffee plants changes according to the location, time of year, age, organs and the tissues within the same plant (Bragança et al., 2007) and maturation cycle (Partelli et al., 2014). The coffee’s fruiting process comprises a sequence of physiological events and morphological changes ranging from fl ower induction to fruit maturation, having a high demand for mineral nutrients (Carelli et al. 2006; Bragança et al, 2007; Melo et al. 2011; Partelli et al., 2014). During development, fruits are strong sinks for minerals and carbohydrates, therefore competing with other plant organs and often leading to nutritional defi ciencies in those organs of the same coffee plant (Reindeer and Maestri, 1985; Carvalho et al., 1993; Laviola et al., 2008). Physically adequate soil for coffee production can display low availability of some nutrients due to either actual defi ciency or factors which limit the absorption, frequently leading to defi ciency symptoms in coffee crops (Martinez et al., 2003; Partelli et al., 2006; Laviola et al., 2007a). An alternative to acceptable nutrition of crops is the use of organic nutrient sources, such as coffee husk (Serrano et al., 2011). Additionally, it has low cost, especially when the produced coffee is locally processed. The need for renewable options, available in-situ and lower cost for the supply of nutrients for the crop is increasingly important due to the need for more sustainable agriculture (Chemura, 2014). By knowing the amounts of allocated nutrients in Conilon coffee tissues, valuable information can be gathered to assist the planning of the coffee crop fertilization program, as well as its use as a complement to conventional fertilization. Therefore, this study aims at to quantify the concentration and accumulation of nutrients in the husk, beans and fruits from irrigated and non-irrigated Conilon coffee trees. MATERIALS AND METHODS Plant material and experimental conditions The experiment was performed in southern Bahia, Brazil (42’13 “S latitude and 39 ° 25’28’’W longitude) at an altitude of 108 m. Five year old plants from C. canephora cv. EMCAPA 8111 genotypes Clone 02 (Bragança et al., 2001) grown under fi eld conditions and spaced 3.5 x 1.0 m. According to Köppen classifi cation, the climate is Aw, tropical with a dry and rainy season during the winter and summer, respectively (Köppen, 1931; Alvares et al., 2014). The soil is classifi ed as Oxisol (sandy loam dystrophic Yellow Latosol) according to Embrapa (2013). Chemical and physical characteristics of the soil, at 0-20 cm layer were: P: 28.5 mg dm-3; K: 105 mg dm-3; Ca: 4.15 cmolc dm -3; Mg: 1.55 cmolc dm -3; S: 15.5 mg dm-3; B: 1.49 mg dm-3; Cu: 1.9 mg dm-3; Fe: 450 mg dm-3; Mn: 20.0 mg dm-3; Zn: 4.2 mg dm-3; pH: 6.25; H+ + Al3+: 2.85 cmolc dm -3; organic matter: 4.55 dag kg-1; total sand: 730 g kg-1; silt: 110 g kg-1; clay: 160 g kg-1; fi eld capacity: 0.19 cm3 cm-3 and permanent wilting point: 0.13 cm3 cm-3. A completely randomized design with two treatments (irrigated and non-irrigated) with 28 replicates under fi eld conditions were used. The management practices on the crop consisted in weeds control through herbicides and clipping, preventive phytosanitary management, liming, fertilization and irrigation (only on irrigated treatment). To implement the non-irrigated treatment, irrigation of the respective plot was suspended in March of 2011 in order to allow the plants acclimation to drought. In the irrigated treatment, surface drip irrigation was used with one line of emitters per plants lines, spaced every 0.5 m and fl ow of 2.0 L h-1. The air temperatures (maximum, mean and minimum), global solar radiation, rainfall and relative humidity of the air were collected at an automatic weather station located at a distance of 800 m from the experimental area (Fig. 1). The meteorological data were used to determine the reference evapotranspiration (ETo) according to the Penman-Monteith model (Allen et al., 1998). The irrigation management was adopted through water balance, based on crop evapotranspiration (ETc), rainfall measured at the site and water storage characteristics of soil. A daily soil water balance (for both irrigated and non-irrigated conditions) was calculated to identify water defi cit periods (Fig. 1). Both irrigated and non-irrigated treatments were fertilized annually with: N 500 kg ha-1; P2O5 100 kg ha -1; K2O 400 kg ha -1. The fertilizer was split and applied weekly on irrigated plants, through fertigation, whereas the fertilizer was split 10 times over the two years on nonirrigated plants. The coffee crop was conducted according to programmed cycle pruning system with four orthotropic branches (Verdin Filho et al., 2014). Nutrient accumulation measurements The fruit samples were collected during the harvest of 2012 and 2013 (two harvests), being collected 14 samples per treatment (one per plant) in each harvest. During the harvest, 50 coffee fruits were collected in each plant, being selected only mature fruits (consisting of two beans). Harvested fruits were dried in an oven with forced air at 70 oC for 72 h. Thereafter, the fruits were processed aiming at to separate the beans and husk. Afterward, these fruit parts were weighed on a precision balance to obtain the Covre, et al.: Nutrient in bean and fruit from Coffea canephora 404 Emir. J. Food Agric ● Vol 28 ● Issue 6 ● 2016 straw, bean and total fruit dry mass. Thereafter, the samples (straw, bean and fruit) were fi nely ground in a wiley mill and used to macro (N, P, K, Ca, Mg and S) and micronutrients (Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn and B) analysis following the methodology described by Silva et al. (2009). The amount of husk and bean dry mass in a processed bag of 60 kg of coffee was estimated, considering the relationship found between bean and straw from fruit. Accumulation of macro and micronutrients in the husk and beans were calculated by dry mass x the concentration of each nutrient. Macro and micronutrients accumulated in the fruits were obtained from the sum of the macro and micronutrients contained in the husk and bean. All data were submitted to a one-way ANOVA, followed by a mean using the Student’s t–test, using Genes software (Cruz, 2013). A 95% confi dence level was adopted for all tests. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The maintenance of an adequate mineral nutrition and of the balance between the several minerals is crucial to plant development. Such preservation of adequate mineral contents and balance within the plant is determinant for the expression of stress tolerance mechanisms on coffee (Ramalho et al., 2013), and assume a particular importance under predicted future conditions of climate changes and global warming (Martins et al., 2014), which are expected Fig 1. Global solar radiation, maximum, mean and minimum air temperatures (a); rainfall, irrigation and relative humidity (b); water defi cit (in nonirrigated and irrigated treatments) and total reference evapotranspiration (ETo) (c), determined during the experimental period between July 2011 and July 2013. c b a Covre, et al.: Nutrient in bean and fruit from Coffea canephora Emir. J. Food Agric ● Vol 28 ● Issue 6 ● 2016 405 to simultaneously alter temperature and water availability to main crops, including to coffee (Rodrigues et al., 2016). The concentration and accumulation of nutrients in Conilon coffee showed no statistical differences between water treatments in husk, beans and the whole fruit (Table 1). Fruit dry mass production of Conilon coffee is not mainly infl uenced by the drought (non-irrigated plants) at the end of fruits physiological maturity stage (Table 1). The production of one ton (1000 kg) processed Conilon coffee resulted in production of 520.7 and 536.7 kg of husks by irrigated and non-irrigated plants, respectively (Table 1). Therefore, for each produced bag, the husk biomass represented ca. half of processed bean biomass, representing ca. 35% and. 65% of total fruit biomass, respectively, what agrees with Matiello et al. (2010) who claim that 2 kg Conilon coffee beans yields 1.3 kg of processed coffee. To the high yield of genotype 02 found here it would have contributed that only with perfect coffee fruit were used, that is, from fl owers which undergone complete syngamy with fertilization of the two ovules of fl ower. Additionally, the genotype 02 shows low proportion of “moca” beans (Pereira, 2015). These values are somewhat higher than those found for C. arabica genotypes that showed values in the range of ca. 43% to 59% of coffee beans yields to processed coffee (Gaspari-Pezzopane et al., 2005; Matiello et al., 2010; Palva et al., 2010). As regards the mineral contents in the fruit tissues, the macronutrient concentration of husk and beans showed no statistical difference between the irrigated and non-irrigated treatments, except for P concentration in the husk where non-irrigated plants presented a 33.3% higher value than irrigated plants (Table 2). This contrasted with the impact of extreme temperatures in mineral contents at leaf level (Ramalho et al., 2013; Martins et al., 2014), and might be linked to the strong sink effect of the fruits that could withdraw minerals from other plant organs, together with the mineral availability provided by the applied fertilization in the present experiments. The largest macronutrients concentrations in the coffee hus

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Nutrient accumulation in bean and fruit from irrigated and non-irrigated coffea canephora cv. conilon

Brazil has always been one of the most important coffee producing countries. Lately, there has equally been a renewed interest in alternative coffee production systems. The state of Espirito Santo is the second greatest coffee producer in Brazil; so, we used local coffee plantations to evaluate the relations between soil macrofauna and chemical and microbiological soil properties to identify which of these properties discriminate more effectively between the organic management system (OS) and the conventional management system (CS) of coffee plantations. For each of these two cultivation systems we chose three coffee farms who employed both cultivation systems and picked out the most similar fields from each property. At each site, first we sampled the litter at the soil surface. Afterwards, we sampled nine soil monoliths to evaluate the macrofauna, in summer and winter. We also collected nine supplemental soil samples, taken at a few centimeters from the soil monoliths, for chemical and microbiological analyses. Macrofauna density was evaluated by ANOVA and multivariate analysis. The chemical and microbiological properties are environmental variables, while the data on macrofauna are the explanatory variables. The total number of individuals recovered in this study was 3,354, and the climate, identified by the sampling season, was a great modulator of macrofauna, with higher numbers in winter. The principal components analysis showed that soil moisture, organic matter, nitrogen, phosphorus, boron, copper, pH, acid and alkaline phosphatases and microbial biomass carbon, were the most outstanding ones to discriminate both cultivation systems. We found no statistical significant differences in macrofauna density between OS and CS, probably due to a general great variability, since there was a tendency for much greater values in OS. We detected the interference of chemical and microbiological soil properties on the macrofauna community in both systems of coffee cultivation, and some results clearly correlated much better with climate data than with other factors. To our knowledge, this is the first time in which the data point to a clear separation between the more numerous and diversified soil macrofauna in coffee with organic cultivation from that with a conventional cultivation system.

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Soil macrofauna in organic and conventional coffee plantations in Brazil

Sao Paulo Agency of Agrobusiness Technology (APTA) Midwest Regional/SAA, Av. Rodrigues Alves, 4040

Arabica coffee–macadamia intercropping: Yield and profitability with mechanized coffee harvesting

Objetivou-se, neste trabalho, estudar a viabilidade tecnica na reducao de niveis dos nutrientes nitrogenio (N), fosforo (P), potassio (K) e enxofre (S), utilizados na adubacao mineral do cafe, cultivar Catuai Vermelho IAC-144, atraves da adubacao orgânica com esterco de galinha em doses crescentes de 2,5; 5,0; 10,0 e 20,0 t ha-1, acrescidas proporcionalmente as doses de adubacao mineral, desde o plantio ate a terceira producao do cafeeiro. Nas tres safras estudadas, todos os tratamentos realizados foram significativamente superiores em producao em relacao a testemunha, de 107 a 145%, indicando a importância dos nutrientes N, P, K e S no cultivo do cafe no cerrado. Entre os tratamentos, a maior dose de esterco (20,0 t ha-1) foi significativamente o tratamento mais produtivo; as demais doses nao apresentaram diferenca estatistica, embora tenham proporcionado aumentos de 9 a 19% na produtividade, em relacao ao tratamento exclusivamente mineral. No solo, observouse que, em funcao das doses do adubo orgânico, ocorreu aumento da capacidade de troca de cations (CTC), nos niveis do calcio (Ca), fosforo (P), boro (B), potassio (K), zinco (Zn) e manganes (Mn) e reducao dos niveis de cobre (Cu). Na utilizacao de doses maiores do adubo mineral, ocorreu a reducao do pH, da saturacao de bases (V%), do Ca e do magnesio Mg. Nas doses maiores do esterco, nao ocorreram alteracoes quimicas significativas para o pH e V%. A materia orgânica praticamente manteve-se estavel. Os teores de N, P, K e S foliares em todos os tratamentos foram adequados e deficientes na testemunha. Nas doses utilizadas de N, P, K e S do experimento, pode-se recomendar uma reducao de 14 a 100% do N, de 50 a 100% do P, de 8 a 58% do K e de 21 a 100% do S.

Adubação orgânica do cafeeiro, com uso do esterco de galinha, em substituição à adubação mineral

Objetivou-se, no presente trabalho, conduzido em Araxa, MG, estudar a viabilidade tecnica de reduzir os niveis de nitrogenio, fosforo, potassio e enxofre recomendados para a nutricao mineral do cafeeiro arabica (Catuai Vermelho IAC 144), com utilizacao de palha de cafe como adubacao orgânica, em doses crescentes (2,5; 5,0; 10,0 e 20,0 t ha-1) somadas as recomendacoes de adubacao mineral, reduzindo-se proporcionalmente as quantidades dos nutrientes contidos na palha. Apos tres safras (2008 a 2010), concluiu-se que: a) e viavel a utilizacao da palha de cafe como fonte de N, P, K e S com consequente reducao desses nutrientes na adubacao mineral do cafeeiro, o que permite aumentos de produtividade de ate 25%; b) as adubacoes minerais, tanto exclusivas como as reduzidas com a palha de cafe sao significativamente superiores em produtividade (de 88 a 135%) a testemunha, demonstrando a necessidade desses nutrientes no cultivo do cafeeiro em condicoes de cerrado; c) as doses maiores de palha de cafe nao alteram o pH, o V%, o Ca2+, o Mg2+; aumentam o K+ e o B, e o Mg+2, que mantiveram-se com teores adequados, bem como tenderam a aumentar a CTC e a materia orgânica, alem de reduzir o Cu e d) podem-se reduzir os niveis de N, P, K e S da adubacao exclusivamente mineral, entre 6 a 44% para o N; 8 a 54% para o P; 28 a 100% para o K e de 8 a 68% para o S com o uso de palha de cafe como adubo orgânico para o cafeeiro.

Reduction of mineral fertilization of Arabic coffee using coffee straw

In the region of Araxa highlands, the economical production of coffee is traditionally made without irrigation. Notwithstanding in recent years, with climate change, water deficit of 150 mm have been verified, affecting the vegetative and productive development of the culture. Within this context, the aim of this study was to evaluate supplementary irrigation to increase production and profitability of the coffee grown in the highlands of Araxa, compared to a non-irrigated and irrigated cultivation throughout the year. The work was implemented in Araxa, Minas Gerais in 2006 and carried out throughout the period of nine years. Different periods of water stress (from April to November) were evaluated, compared with irrigation throughout the year and the witness. After 6 consecutive harvests, it can be concluded that supplemental irrigation promoted an increased productivity in the coffee grown under the conditions of the Araxa Plateau, especially in years of drought. With regard to economic performance, the process of irrigation applied throughout the year promoted profits of 279% (R$/ha year-1) compared to the treatment without irrigation.

Viabilidade técnica e econômica da irrigação localizada do cafeeiro, nas condições climáticas do planalto de Araxá, MG

Technical and economic viability of drip irrigation of coffee in Araxá, MG

With the irrigation of coffee, it was possible that areas previously considered marginal to the deployment of culture to become suitable for the crop. In the plateau region of Araxa, traditionally coffee is produced economically without irrigation, due to the historical averagewater deficit of less than 100 mm per year. But in recent years, with climate change, it has been verified years with deficits of 150 mm, affecting plant growth and crop yield. Within this context, the objective was to assess supplementary irrigation to increase production of coffee grown on the plateau of rock phosphate. The treatments were different drought periods (from April to November), compared with total irrigation and without irrigation. After three seasons, it was concluded that the interruption ofirrigation on yield losses caused 8 to 33%.

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Rodrigo Ticle Ferreira

Papers

Adubação orgânica do cafeeiro, com uso do esterco de galinha, em substituição à adubação mineral

Reduction of mineral fertilization of Arabic coffee using coffee straw

Viabilidade técnica e econômica da irrigação localizada do cafeeiro, nas condições climáticas do planalto de Araxá, MG

Technical and economic viability of drip irrigation of coffee in Araxá, MG

Época de irrigação por gotejamento na formação e produção do cafeeiro cultivado nas condições climáticas do planalto de araxá/mg