The chapter begins with a distinction made between the interactions children have with peers, the relationships they form with peers, and the groups and networks within which peer interactions and relationships occur. From this conceptual overview, a review of relevant theories is presented. Thereafter, a developmental perspective of peer interactions, relationships, and groups is presented covering the periods of infancy, toddlerhood, early childhood, middle childhood, and adolescence. Subsequently, methods and measures pertaining to the study of children's peer experiences are described. Next, we examine factors that may account for peer acceptance and rejection as well as qualitatively rich and poor friendships. Among the factors discussed are included temperament (biological factors), sex of child, parenting, parent-child relationships, and culture. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the extent to which individual differences in peer acceptance, rejection and friendship (prevalence and quality) predict adaptive and maladaptive developmental outcomes and a suggested agenda for future research.


Keywords:

friendship;
peer interactions;
peer relationships;
peer rejection;
social acceptance;
social competence

Peer Interactions, Relationships, and Groups

Social capital, self-esteem, and use of online social network sites: A longitudinal analysis

In this chapter we review theoretical and empirical advances in research on adolescent development in interpersonal and societal contexts. First, we identify several trends in current research, including the current emphasis on ecological models and the focus on diversity in and relational models of adolescent development. Next, we discuss recent research on interpersonal relationships, with an eye toward identifying major research themes and findings. Research on adolescents' relationships with parents, siblings, other relatives, peers, and romantic partners, and adolescents' involvement in community and society is reviewed. Future directions in research on adolescent development are discussed.

Adolescent development in interpersonal and societal contexts.

This study examined multiple levels of adolescents' interpersonal functioning, including general peer relations (peer crowd affiliations, peer victimization), and qualities of best friendships and romantic relationships as predictors of symptoms of depression and social anxiety. An ethnically diverse sample of 421 adolescents (57% girls; 14 to 19 years) completed measures of peer crowd affiliation, peer victimization, and qualities of best friendships and romantic relationships. Peer crowd affiliations (high and low status), positive qualities in best friendships, and the presence of a dating relationship protected adolescents against feelings of social anxiety, whereas relational victimization and negative interactions in best friendships predicted high social anxiety. In contrast, affiliation with a high-status peer crowd afforded some protection against depressive affect; however, relational victimization and negative qualities of best friendships and romantic relationships predicted depressive symptoms. Some moderating effects for ethnicity were observed. Findings indicate that multiple aspects of adolescents' social relations uniquely contribute to feelings of internal distress. Implications for research and preventive interventions are discussed.

Adolescent peer relations, friendships, and romantic relationships: do they predict social anxiety and depression?

For researchers and practitioners interested in social relationships, the question remains as to how large social networks typically are, and how their size and composition change across adulthood. On the basis of predictions of socioemotional selectivity theory and social convoy theory, we conducted a meta-analysis on age-related social network changes and the effects of life events on social networks using 277 studies with 177,635 participants from adolescence to old age. Cross-sectional as well as longitudinal studies consistently showed that (a) the global social network increased up until young adulthood and then decreased steadily, (b) both the personal network and the friendship network decreased throughout adulthood, (c) the family network was stable in size from adolescence to old age, and (d) other networks with coworkers or neighbors were important only in specific age ranges. Studies focusing on life events that occur at specific ages, such as transition to parenthood, job entry, or widowhood, demonstrated network changes similar to such age-related network changes. Moderator analyses detected that the type of network assessment affected the reported size of global, personal, and family networks. Period effects on network sizes occurred for personal and friendship networks, which have decreased in size over the last 35 years. Together the findings are consistent with the view that a portion of normative, age-related social network changes are due to normative, age-related life events. We discuss how these patterns of normative social network development inform research in social, evolutionary, cultural, and personality psychology.

/pdf/social-network-changes-and-life-events-across-the-life-span-216tn68nvf.pdf

Social network changes and life events across the life span: a meta-analysis.

Adolescents' peer structures and the quality of their friendships were explored as antecedents of romantic relationships. Longitudinal data were gathered in a sample of 180 high school students over a 3-year period from grade 9 to grade 11. Consistent with Dunphy (1963), small groups of close friends were predictive of other-sex peer networks which were, in turn predictive of the emergence of future romantic relationships. Indirect effects were found for same-sex groups of close friends and same-sex networks. Consistent with Furman and Wehner (1994), the qualitative features of relationships with both friends and romantic partners were predictive of the qualitative features of subsequent romantic experiences. These linkages suggest ways in which peer relationships may support romantic development at this stage of the life cycle.

/pdf/the-role-of-peers-in-the-emergence-of-heterosexual-romantic-it3pm6qyx2.pdf

The Role of Peers in the Emergence of Heterosexual Romantic Relationships in Adolescence.

In this study, we examined the factor structure of the peer self-concept and its associations with structural and qualitative features of peer experiences in 1,627 male and female adolescents, enrolled in Grades 9 to 12. Confirmatory factor analysis supported a three-factor model that differentiated the peer self-concept vis-a-vis the peer group, close friendships, and romantic relationships. Results were consistent across grade and gender. Regression analyses indicated that each domain of the peer self-concept was differentially associated with those features of peer experience most relevant to their formation. When considered jointly, both peer network structure and friendship quality were significant predictors of peer self-concept. The results are discussed in terms of adolescents' self-concept and the nature of their interpersonal relationships.

Peer Self-Concept in Adolescence: Analysis of Factor Structure and of Associations with Peer Experience.

Self-censorship in organizations is an individual's decision not to share information on observed irregularities and misconduct of others. The propensity to self-censor, motivated by belief that voice will not be heard, may reflect gender inequalities. In study 1 (N = 948) we test whether women manifest more self-censorship than men and we verify whether this effect is maintained when women and men hold managerial position. In two follow-up studies we analyse the effects of a) procedural justice (study 2, N = 98) and b) communal organizational climate (study 3, N = 589) on women's and men's self-censorship. The results of our studies support our assumptions: 1) self-censorship in women is more prevalent than in men, 2) women in management positions are more likely to self-censor than men in managerial positions, 3) procedural justice and communal organizational climate are negatively related to employees’ self-censorship, and this relationship is stronger for women. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved 

Gender perspectives on self‐censorship in organizations: The role of management position, procedural justice and organizational climate

Introduction Recently, the network theory of mental disorders has been used to conceptualize work addiction as a dynamic system of symptoms in direct relationships. This study aimed to extend previous work by investigating the direct relationships of work addiction symptoms with dimensions of work engagement, job burnout, and perceived stress. Methods These phenomena were measured with the Bergen Work Addiction Scale, the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale, the Maslach Burnout Inventory–General Survey, and the Perceived Stress Scale. The sample comprised 676 working Poles with a mean age of 36.12 years (SD = 11.23). The network analysis followed the guidelines for estimating psychological networks from cross-sectional data. Results Work engagement and job burnout were more closely associated with each other than with work addiction which supports the notion that engagement and burnout represent polar opposites of the same construct and that work addiction is a separate phenomenon, related to both work engagement and job burnout via specific pathways. The symptoms of work addiction were connected with other phenomena through four direct relationships: (1) mood modification—absorption, (2) mood modification—stress, (3) withdrawal—absorption, and (4) problems—exhaustion. Discussion These findings narrow down and specify hypotheses regarding potential mechanisms leading from engagement to addiction and from addiction to burnout. The possible mechanisms focus on the absorption component and mood modification related to efforts focused on alleviating chronic stress and negative emotional states. In turn, problems arising from work addiction may lead to exhaustion. Future studies investigating these mechanisms in detail may enable proper prevention programs and therapeutic interventions.

Roman Konarski

Papers

The Role of Peers in the Emergence of Heterosexual Romantic Relationships in Adolescence.

Peer Self-Concept in Adolescence: Analysis of Factor Structure and of Associations with Peer Experience.

Gender perspectives on self‐censorship in organizations: The role of management position, procedural justice and organizational climate

Work addiction, work engagement, job burnout, and perceived stress: A network analysis