Both the magnitude and the urgency of the task of assessing global biodiversity require that we make the most of what we know through the use of estimation and extrapolation. Likewise, future biodiversity inventories need to be designed around the use of effective sampling and estimation procedures, especially for 'hyperdiverse' groups of terrestrial organisms, such as arthropods, nematodes, fungi, and microorganisms. The challenge of estimating patterns of species richness from samples can be separated into (i) the problem of estimating local species richness, and (ii) the problem of estimating the distinctness, or complementarity, of species assemblages. These concepts apply on a wide range of spatial, temporal, and functional scales. Local richness can be estimated by extrapolating species accumulation curves, fitting parametric distributions of relative abundance, or using non-parametric techniques based on the distribution of individuals among species or of species among samples. We present several of these methods and examine their effectiveness for an example data set. We present a simple measure of complementarity, with some biogeographic examples, and outline the difficult problem of estimating complementarity from samples. Finally, we discuss the importance of using 'reference' sites (or sub-sites) to assess the true richness and composition of species assemblages, to measure ecologically significant ratios between unrelated taxa, to measure taxon/sub-taxon (hierarchical) ratios, and to 'calibrate' standardized sampling methods. This information can then be applied to the rapid, approximate assessment of species richness and faunal or floral composition at 'comparative' sites.

Estimating Terrestrial Biodiversity through Extrapolation

Identification of the selective forces on plant dispersal engenders theoretical argument, empirical study, and speculation. We separate evidence, testable hypotheses, and conjecture surrounding two major questions in dispersal ecology. The first asks what ecological, and ultimately evolutionary, advantages exist in seed dispersal. Astonishingly little is known about the advantages to a parent plant that are actually conferred by investment in dispersal structures. Does dispersal enable seeds and ultimately seedlings to escape mortality near the parent? Is continual recolonization of unstable habitats the primary advantage? Must seeds find rare microhabitats suitable for reestablishment? Such issues are addressed through joint consideration of dispersal and establishment-those stages both mediated by parental provisioning and subject to the highest mortality in the life of a plant. The second broad question asks what general and explicit environmental forces influence the timing and mode of dispersal. Do climates or seasons favor one dispersal mode over another? Do differences in number, size, morphology, or nutritional quality of fruits influence frugivore choice, and consequently differential dispersal of species or individuals within species? Studies of dispersal process and mode should be intimately connected. A general objective of this paper is to explore the degree to which they are integrated and, in so doing, to catalyze their union. We emphasize topics most in need of critical attention: the evolutionary ecology of dispersal process and mode. Excellent recent reviews consider such related topics as dispersal mechanism (131, 184), seed dormancy (1, 30), phytogeography (11, 115, 146), masting and predator satiation (105, 156), and succession (68, 69, 189).

https://www.jstor.org/stable/info/2097067

Ecology of Seed Dispersal

The evidentiary basis of the currently accepted classification of living amphibians is discussed and shown not to warrant the degree of authority conferred on it by use and tradition. A new taxonomy of living amphibians is proposed to correct the deficiencies of the old one. This new taxonomy is based on the largest phylogenetic analysis of living Amphibia so far accomplished. We combined the comparative anatomical character evidence of Haas (2003) with DNA sequences from the mitochondrial transcription unit H1 (12S and 16S ribosomal RNA and tRNAValine genes, ≈ 2,400 bp of mitochondrial sequences) and the nuclear genes histone H3, rhodopsin, tyrosinase, and seven in absentia, and the large ribosomal subunit 28S (≈ 2,300 bp of nuclear sequences; ca. 1.8 million base pairs; x = 3.7 kb/terminal). The dataset includes 532 terminals sampled from 522 species representative of the global diversity of amphibians as well as seven of the closest living relatives of amphibians for outgroup comparisons. The...

https://bioone.org/journals/Bulletin-of-the-American-Museum-of-Natural-History/volume-2006/issue-297/0003-0090(2006)297[0001:TATOL]2.0.CO;2/THE-AMPHIBIAN-TREE-OF-LIFE/10.1206/0003-0090(2006)297[0001:TATOL]2.0.CO;2.pdf

The amphibian tree of life

We redescribe the only previously known species of Myrsidea from bulbuls, M. pycnonoti Eichler. Sixteen new species are described; they and their type hosts are: M. phillipsi ex Pycnonotus goiavier goiavier (Scopoli), M. gieferi ex P. goiavier suluensis Mearns, M. kulpai ex P. flavescens Blyth, M. finlaysoni ex P. finlaysoni Strickland, M. kathleenae ex P. cafer (L.), M. warwicki ex Ixos philippinus (J. R. Forster), M. mcclurei ex Microscelis amaurotis (Temminck), M. zeylanici ex P. zeylanicus (Gmelin), M. plumosi ex P. plumosus Blyth, M. eutiloti ex P. eutilotus (Jardine and Selby), M. adamsae ex P. urostictus (Salvadori), M. ochracei ex Criniger ochraceus F. Moore, M. borbonici ex Hypsipetes borbonicus (J. R. Forster), M. johnsoni ex P. atriceps (Temminck), M. palmai ex C. ochraceus, and M. claytoni ex P. eutilotus. A key is provided for the identification of these 17 species.

A new species

A s a group [reptiles] are nei t h er ‘good ’n or ‘b ad ,’ but ia re intere s ting and unu su a l , a l t h o u gh of m i n or i m port a n ce . If t h ey should all disappe a r, it wo u l d not make mu ch differen ce one way or the other ”( Zim and Smith 1953, p. 9 ) . Fortu n a tely, this op i n i on from the Golden Gu i de Series does not persist tod ay; most people have com e to recogn i ze the va lue of both reptiles and amph i bians as an i n tegral part of n a tu ral eco s ys tems and as heralds of envi ron m ental qu a l i ty (Gibbons and Stangel 1999). In recent ye a rs , as overa ll envi ron m ental aw a reness among the p u blic has incre a s ed , con cerns have come to inclu de intere s t in the eco l ogical state of reptile and amph i bian spec i e s t h em s elves and of t h eir habi t a t s . In c re a s ed aw a reness may s tem from bet ter edu c a ti on abo ut threats to bi od ivers i ty in gen era l , and to reptiles and amph i bians in parti c u l a r, a n d po s s i bly even from an innate attracti on to these taxa ( Kell ert and Wi l s on 1993). From the perspective of many nonscientists, the two vertebrate classes comprising reptiles and amphibians, collectively referred to as the herpetofauna, are interchangeable. For example,the Boy Scout merit badge pamphlet for herpetology was called simply Reptile Study from 1926 to 1993 (Conant 1972, Gibbons 1993), and major zoos (e.g., National Zoo in Washington, DC; Zoo Atlanta; and San Diego Zoo) use only the name “reptile” to refer to the facility that houses both amphibians and reptiles. Thus, public attitudes about the need for conservation of reptiles are probably linked to concern about amphibian declines and deformities (Alford and Richards 1999, Johnson et al. 1999, Sessions et al. 1999), which have been the subject of numerous, well-documented scientific studies. Because amphibians are distributed worldwide, but herpetologists who document amphibian declines are not, it is difficult to accurately assess what portion of amphibian populations are experiencing significant declines or have already disappeared. Furthermore, the means of determining a species’ conservation status is a rigorous and time-intensive process, and therefore counts of “officially” recognized endangered and threatened species are likely to grossly underestimate the actual number of imperiled s pecies (Ta ble 1). The worl dwi de amph i bian decl i n e probl em , as it has come to be known, has garnered significant attention not only among scientists but also in the popular media and in political circles.

/pdf/the-global-decline-of-reptiles-deja-vu-amphibians-594oge2sdh.pdf

The global decline of reptiles, deja’ vu amphibians

Measuring and Monitoring Biological Diversity: Standard Methods for Amphibians.

Preface Acknowledgments List of Contributors Chapter 1. Introduction: The Tadpole Arena Roy W. McDiarmid and Ronald Altig Chapter 2. Research: Materials and Techniques Roy W. McDiarmid and Ronald Altig Chapter 3. Body Plan: Development and Morphology Ronald Altig and Roy W. McDiarmid Chapter 4. Architecture: Cranial and Axial Musculoskeleton David Cannatella Chapter 5. Anatomy: Viscera and Endocrines Bruno Viertel and Susanne Richter Chapter 6. Integration: Nervous and Sensory Systems Michael J. Lannoo Chapter 7. Endotrophic Anurans: Development and Evolution Giselle Thibaudeau and Ronald Altig Chapter 8. Physiology: Coping with the Environment Gordon R. Ultsch, David F. Bradford, and Joe Freda Chapter 9. Behavior: Interactions and Their Consequences Karin vS. Hoff, Andrew Blaustein, Roy W. McDiarmid, and Ronald Altig Chapter 10. Ecology: Resource Use, Competition, and Predation Ross A. Alford Chapter 11. The Anuran Tadpole: Evolution and Maintenance Reid N. Harris Chapter 12. Diversity: Familial and Generic Characterizations Ronald Altig and Roy W. McDiarmid Glossary Literature Cited Subject Index Taxonomic Index

Tadpoles : the biology of anuran larvae

Body plan: Development and morphology

Tadpoles involved in predator-prey interactions were studied in tropical wet forest in Costa Rica under laboratory and field conditions. Larvae of the frog Leptodactylus pentadactylas and naiads of the odonate Pantala flavescens are important predators on larvae of several species of frogs. The predators discriminate the prey on the basis of size and species, but not type of habitat in which predation occurs. A graphical model is proposed to illustrate the relationships between species diversity and habitat complexity as they affect the composition of tadpole communities. The model is used to evaluate the relative importance of abiotic and biotic factors in determining the use of specific kinds of aquatic habitats by frogs with larval stages. Predation by permanent aquatic predators (primarily fish) is considered to be the most important biotic factor influencing the temporal and spatial composition of tadpole communities. The development and maintenance of predatory feeding modes, including cannibalism, in certain tadpoles is examined in light of the model. MOST TADPOLES are generalized herbivores (Jenssen 1967) that either scrape plant material from a substrate or filter planktonic food directly from the water. Only a few species are known to be carnivorous although some instances of cannibalism among tadpoles have been reported (Bragg 1964). We were surprised, therefore, to find a well-developed predator-prey system in which tadpoles of one species were carnivores on other tadpoles. This finding was unusual not only because documented instances of tadpoles feeding on other tadpoles are relatively rare, but also because the carnivorous tadpoles were found in relatively small puddles. The predator-prey interactions studied occur in small rain-filled tropical puddles characteristically utilized by opportunistic breeders. Experiments were run to study the relative ability of predators to capture prey and their preference for certain prey species, to ascertain the influence of microhabitat on predator-prey interactions, and to evaluate the influence of prey size on their ability to escape predation. Results of these experiments led to a consideration of tadpole habitats and to those factors controlling the diversity of tadpole communities. A model is used to illustrate the relationship between pond complexity and predation as they affect the species composition of a tadpole community. The predatory feeding mode of tadpoles is considered in light of this model.

/pdf/tadpoles-predation-and-pond-habitats-in-the-tropics-43rl01x9ns.pdf

Roy W. McDiarmid

Papers

Measuring and Monitoring Biological Diversity: Standard Methods for Amphibians.

Tadpoles : the biology of anuran larvae

Body plan: Development and morphology

Tadpoles, Predation and Pond Habitats in the Tropics

Rare and endangered biota of Florida