During the last nearly 50 years, the blood lactate curve and lactate thresholds (LTs) have become important in the diagnosis of endurance performance. An intense and ongoing debate emerged, which was mainly based on terminology and/or the physiological background of LT concepts. The present review aims at evaluating LTs with regard to their validity in assessing endurance capacity. Additionally, LT concepts shall be integrated within the ‘aerobic-anaerobic transition’ — a framework which has often been used for performance diagnosis and intensity prescriptions in endurance sports. Usually, graded incremental exercise tests, eliciting an exponential rise in blood lactate concentrations (bLa), are used to arrive at lactate curves. A shift of such lactate curves indicates changes in endurance capacity. This very global approach, however, is hindered by several factors that may influence overall lactate levels. In addition, the exclusive use of the entire curve leads to some uncertainty as to the magnitude of endurance gains, which cannot be precisely estimated. This deficiency might be eliminated by the use of LTs. The aerobic-anaerobic transition may serve as a basis for individually assessing endurance performance as well as for prescribing intensities in endurance training. Additionally, several LT approaches may be integrated in this framework. This model consists of two typical breakpoints that are passed during incremental exercise: the intensity at which bLa begin to rise above baseline levels and the highest intensity at which lactate production and elimination are in equilibrium (maximal lactate steady state [MLSS]). Within this review, LTs are considered valid performance indicators when there are strong linear correlations with (simulated) endurance performance. In addition, a close relationship between LT and MLSS indicates validity regarding the prescription of training intensities. A total of 25 different LT concepts were located. All concepts were divided into three categories. Several authors use fixed bLa during incremental exercise to assess endurance performance (category 1). Other LT concepts aim at detecting the first rise in bLa above baseline levels (category 2). The third category consists of threshold concepts that aim at detecting either the MLSS or a rapid/distinct change in the inclination of the blood lactate curve (category 3). Thirty-two studies evaluated the relationship of LTs with performance in (partly simulated) endurance events. The overwhelming majority of those studies reported strong linear correlations, particularly for running events, suggesting a high percentage of common variance between LT and endurance performance. In addition, there is evidence that some LTs can estimate the MLSS. However, from a practical and statistical point of view it would be of interest to know the variability of individual differences between the respective threshold and the MLSS, which is rarely reported. Although there has been frequent and controversial debate on the LT phenomenon during the last three decades, many scientific studies have dealt with LT concepts, their value in assessing endurance performance or in prescribing exercise intensities in endurance training. The presented framework may help to clarify some aspects of the controversy and may give a rationale for performance diagnosis and training prescription in future research as well as in sports practice.

Lactate threshold concepts: how valid are they?

The purpose of this study was to investigate effects of concurrent strength and endurance training (SE) (2 plus 2 days a week) versus strength training only (S) (2 days a week) in men [SE: n=11; 38 (5) years, S: n=16; 37 (5) years] over a training period of 21 weeks. The resistance training program addressed both maximal and explosive strength components. EMG, maximal isometric force, 1 RM strength, and rate of force development (RFD) of the leg extensors, muscle cross-sectional area (CSA) of the quadriceps femoris (QF) throughout the lengths of 4/15–12/15 (Lf) of the femur, muscle fibre proportion and areas of types I, IIa, and IIb of the vastus lateralis (VL), and maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) were evaluated. No changes occurred in strength during the 1-week control period, while after the 21-week training period increases of 21% (p<0.001) and 22% (p<0.001), and of 22% (p<0.001) and 21% (p<0.001) took place in the 1RM load and maximal isometric force in S and SE, respectively. Increases of 26% (p<0.05) and 29% (p<0.001) occurred in the maximum iEMG of the VL in S and SE, respectively. The CSA of the QF increased throughout the length of the QF (from 4/15 to 12/15 Lf) both in S (p<0.05–0.001) and SE (p<0.01–0.001). The mean fibre areas of types I, IIa and IIb increased after the training both in S (p<0.05 and 0.01) and SE (p<0.05 and p<0.01). S showed an increase in RFD (p<0.01), while no change occurred in SE. The average iEMG of the VL during the first 500 ms of the rapid isometric action increased (p<0.05–0.001) only in S. VO2max increased by 18.5% (p<0.001) in SE. The present data do not support the concept of the universal nature of the interference effect in strength development and muscle hypertrophy when strength training is performed concurrently with endurance training, and the training volume is diluted by a longer period of time with a low frequency of training. However, the present results suggest that even the low-frequency concurrent strength and endurance training leads to interference in explosive strength development mediated in part by the limitations of rapid voluntary neural activation of the trained muscles.

Neuromuscular adaptations during concurrent strength and endurance training versus strength training

Time over a distance, i.e. speed, is the reference for performance for all events whose rules are based on locomotion in different mechanical constraints. A certain power output has to be maintained during a distance or over time. The energy requirements and metabolic support for optimal performance are functions of the length of the race and the intensity at which it is completed. However, despite the complexity of the regulation of lactate metabolism, blood lactate measurements can be used by coaches for prediction of exercise performance. The anaerobic threshold, commonly defined as the exercise intensity, speed or fraction of maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) at a fixed blood lactate level or at a maximal lactate steady-state (MLSS), has been accepted as a measure of the endurance. The blood lactate threshold, expressed as a fraction of the velocity associated with VO2max, depends on the relationship between velocity and oxygen uptake (VO2). The measurement of the post-competition blood lactate in short events (lasting 1 to 2 minutes) has been found to be related to the performance in events (400 to 800m in running). Blood lactate levels can be used to assist with determining training exercise intensity. However, to interpret the training effect on the blood lactate profile, the athlete’s nutritional state and exercise protocol have also to be controlled. Moreover, improvement of fractional utilisation of VO2max at the MLSS has to be considered among all discriminating factors of the performance, such as the velocity associated with VO2max.

Use of Blood Lactate Measurements for Prediction of Exercise Performance and for Control of Training Recommendations for Long-Distance Running

Exercise prescribed according to relative intensity is a routine feature in the exercise science literature and is intended to produce an approximately equivalent exercise stress in individuals with different absolute exercise capacities. The traditional approach has been to prescribe exercise intensity as a percentage of maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) or maximum heart rate (HRmax) and these methods remain common in the literature. However, exercise intensity prescribed at a %VO2max or %HRmax does not necessarily place individuals at an equivalent intensity above resting levels. Furthermore, some individuals may be above and others below metabolic thresholds such as the aerobic threshold (AerT) or anaerobic threshold (AnT) at the same %VO2max or %HRmax. For these reasons, some authors have recommended that exercise intensity be prescribed relative to oxygen consumption reserve (VO2R), heart rate reserve (HRR), the AerT, or the AnT rather than relative to VO2max or HRmax. The aim of this review was to compare the physiological and practical implications of using each of these methods of relative exercise intensity prescription for research trials or training sessions. It is well established that an exercise bout at a fixed %VO2max or %HRmax may produce interindividual variation in blood lactate accumulation and a similar effect has been shown when relating exercise intensity to VO2R or HRR. Although individual variation in other markers of metabolic stress have seldom been reported, it is assumed that these responses would be similarly heterogeneous at a %VO2max, %HRmax, %VO2R, or %HRR of moderate-to-high intensity. In contrast, exercise prescribed relative to the AerT or AnT would be expected to produce less individual variation in metabolic responses and less individual variation in time to exhaustion at a constant exercise intensity. Furthermore, it would be expected that training prescribed relative to the AerT or AnT would provide a more homogenous training stimulus than training prescribed as a %VO2max. However, many of these theoretical advantages of threshold-related exercise prescription have yet to be directly demonstrated. On a practical level, the use of threshold-related exercise prescription has distinct disadvantages compared to the use of %VO2max or %HRmax. Thresholds determined from single incremental tests cannot be assumed to be accurate in all individuals without verification trials. Verification trials would involve two or three additional laboratory visits and would add considerably to the testing burden on both the participant and researcher. Threshold determination and verification would also involve blood lactate sampling, which is aversive to some participants and has a number of intrinsic and extrinsic sources of variation. Threshold measurements also tend to show higher day-to-day variation than VO2max or HRmax. In summary, each method of prescribing relative exercise intensity has both advantages and disadvantages when both theoretical and practical considerations are taken into account. It follows that the most appropriate method of relative exercise intensity prescription may vary with factors such as exercise intensity, number of participants, and participant characteristics. Considering a method's limitations as well as advantages and increased reporting of individual exercise responses will facilitate accurate interpretation of findings and help to identify areas for further study.

Methods of prescribing relative exercise intensity: physiological and practical considerations.

Interval training consisting of brief high intensity repetitive runs (30 s) alternating with periods of complete rest (30 s) has been reported to be efficient in improving maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) and to be tolerated well even by untrained persons. However, these studies have not investigated the effects of the time spent at VO2max which could be an indicator of the benefit of training. It has been reported that periods of continuous running at a velocity intermediate between that of the lactate threshold (vLT) and that associated with VO2max (vVO2max) can allow subjects to reach VO2max due to an additional slow component of oxygen uptake. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to compare the times spent at VO2max during an interval training programme and during continuous strenuous runs. Eight long-distance runners took part in three maximal tests on a synthetic track (400 m) whilst breathing through a portable, telemetric metabolic analyser: they comprised firstly, an incremental test which determined vLT, VO2max [59.8 (SD 5.4) ml.min-1; kg-1], vVO2max [18.5 (SD 1.2) km.h-1], secondly, an interval training protocol consisting of alternately running at 100% and at 50% of vVO2max (30 s each); and thirdly, a continuous high intensity run at vLT + 50% of the difference between vLT and vVO2max [i.e. v delta 50: 16.9 (SD 1.00) km.h-1 and 91.3 (SD 1.6)% vVO2max]. The first and third tests were performed in random order and at 2-day intervals. In each case the subjects warmed-up for 15 min at 50% of vVO2max. The results showed that in more than half of the cases the v delta 50 run allowed the subjects to reach VO2max, but the time spent specifically at VO2max was much less than that during the alternating low/high intensity exercise protocol [2 min 42 s (SD 3 min 09 s) for v delta 50 run vs 7 min 51 s (SD 6 min 38 s) in 19 (SD 5) interval runs]. The blood lactate responses were less pronounced in the interval runs than for the v delta 50 runs, but not significantly so [6.8 (SD 2.2) mmol.l-1 vs 7.5 (SD 2.1) mmol.l-1]. These results do not allow us to speculate as to the chronic effects of these two types of training at VO2max.

Intermittent runs at the velocity associated with maximal oxygen uptake enables subjects to remain at maximal oxygen uptake for a longer time than intense but submaximal runs

The reproducibility of the aerobic (AerT) and the anaerobic (AnT) threshold was studied in 33 men aged 20–50 years. They completed two maximal exercise tests on a bicycle ergometer. The thresholds, as
 
$$\dot V_{O_2 }$$

 (l·min−1), were determined visually by two investigators using both the blood lactate and the respiratory indices. The respiratory variables were measured with a computerized breath-by-breath method; samples of venous blood were drawn every 2nd min and analysed enzymatically for lactate. The reproducibility of the AerT (r=0.94) and of the AnT (r=0.96) were equally good. The AnT can be determined either from blood lactate concentrations (AnTLa) or from ventilatory and gas exchange response (AnTr) during a 2-min incremental exercise test. They both also showed similar reproducibility:r=0.93 for the AnTLa andr=0.95 for the AnTr. The work rate and the measured physiological variables at the AerT and AnT, except for the blood lactacte concentration, were very reproducible. Age did not affect the reproducibility of the thresholds. The poor reproducibility of blood lactate concentration of the AnT confirmed our previous opinion that the fixed blood lactate levels of 2 and 4 mmol·l−1 are poor indicators of AerT and AnT.

S. Aunola

Papers

Reproducibility of aerobic and anaerobic thresholds in 20–50 year old men