Saponins occur widely in plant species and exhibit a range of biological properties, both beneficial and deleterious. This review, which covers the literature to mid 1986, is concerned with their occurrence in plants and their effects when consumed by animals and man. After a short discussion on the nature, occurrence, and biosynthesis of saponins, during which the distinction between steroidal and triterpenoid saponins is made, the structures of saponins which have been identified in a variety of plants used as human foods, animal feedingstuffs, herbs, and flavorings are described. Many of these compounds have been characterized only during the last 2 decades, and modern techniques of isolation, purification, and structural elucidation are discussed. Particular consideration is given to mild chemical and enzymatic methods of hydrolysis and to recent developments in the application of NMR and soft ionization MS techniques to structural elucidation. Methods currently used for the quantitative analysis of saponins, sapogenols, and glycoalkaloids are critically considered; advances in the use of newer methods being emphasized. The levels of saponins in a variety of foods and food plants are discussed in the context of the methods used and factors affecting these levels, including genetic origin, agronomic, and processing variables, are indicated. Critical consideration is given to the biological effects of saponins in food which are very varied and dependent upon both the amount and chemical structure of the individual compounds. The properties considered include membranolytic effects, toxic and fungitoxic effects, adverse effects on animal growth and performance, and the important hypocholesterolemic effect. A final section deals briefly with the pharmacological effects of saponins from ginseng, since use of this plant is increasing in certain sections of western society as well as being traditional in the Orient.

The chemistry and biological significance of saponins in foods and feedingstuffs.

http://ssu.ac.ir/cms/fileadmin/user_upload/Mtahghighat/tfood/ARTICLES/meat/Improving_functional_value_of_meat_products.pdf

Improving functional value of meat products.

Research Section Analysis of 200 food items for benzo[a]pyrene and estimation of its intake ίη an epidemiologic study* Ν. Kazerouni a,c,*, R. Sinha a, Che-Han Hsu b,l, Α. Greenberg b,2, Ν. Rothman a "Divi8ion οι CαncCl' Epiden1iology αnd Genetic8, ΝαΙίοnαl Cαncer In8titute, ΝαΙίοnαl Ιn8ιίΙιιΙα ο/' Heαlth, Eχeωtίve ΡΙαΖα South, RIl1 7033, 6120 Execι;tivc Blvd, Rockvillc, MD 20892, USA bDepαrtIl1ent οjΈnvίrοnΙl1entαl SciencC8, Cook c.Όllege, RLifger8 υnίνCI'8ίΙΥ, Nell' Bnln8\vicl(, NJ 08903, USA CDeΡαι'Ιn1ent οι ΡΓeνenιίve Medicine αnd BiOlneuiC8, Unij(JΓmed Scγvice8 υnίνcγ8ίΙγ οjΊlιe ΗeαΙιl1 S(:ienC'e8, 4301 Jone8 BI'i,!ge Roαd, BethC8dα, MD 20814-4799, USA Accepted 1 October 2000 Animal stιιdies have shown that dietary intake of benzo[α]pyrene (BaP), a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (ΡΑΗ), canses increased levels of tumors at several sites, particιιlarly ίη the upper gastrointestinal tract. However, the role of dietary intake of BaP and cancer ίη humans is not clear. We CIeated a BaP database of selected food products that could be lίnl(ed to Food Frequency Qnestionnaires (FFQs) to estimate BaP intake. BaP levels were measnred for each food line-item (composite samples) which consisted of a variety of foods ίη a FFQ. Composite sample parts were derived from the Second National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES Π) which represents the most common food items consumed by the general popιιlation. Meat samples were cooked by different techniqnes ίn controlled conditions, and by varions restanrants and fast-food chains. Non-meat products were purchased from the major national supermarket chains. The qnantities of BaP were measnred using a thin-Iayer chromatography (TLC)/spectrofluorometer technique and were highly coaelated with both BaP (radius = 0.99) and sum of carcinogenic ΡΑΗ (1'=0.98) measured by HPLC technique. We lίnl(ed ΟΙΙΓ database to the results from a FFQ and estimated the daily BaP intal<e of varions food items ίη 228 snbjects ίn the Washington, DC metropolitan area. The highest levels of BaP (ιιρ to abont 4 ng BaP/g of cooked meat) were found ίη grilled/barbecued very well done steaks and hamburgers and ίη grilled/barbecued well done chicken with skin. BaP concentrations were lower ίη meats that were grilled/barbecued to medium done and ίη all broiled ΟΓ pan-fried meat samples regardless of doneness level. The BaP levels ίn non-meat items were generally low. However, certain cereals and greens (e.g. I<ale, collard greens) had levels ιιρ to 0.5 ng/g. Ιη our population, the bread/cereal/grain, and grilled/barbecued meat, respectively, contributed 29 and 21 Ρeιτent to the mean daily intal(e of BaP. This database may be helpful ίη initial attempts to assess dietary BaP exposnres ίn stιιdies of cancer etiology. Pnblished by Elsevier Science Ltd. Κcγ\VΟΓds: Po!ycyc!ic aromatic hydrocarbons; Benzo[α]pyrene; Meat; Pork; Chicken; Seafood; Vegetab!es; Fruit; Grains; Fat; Sweets; Pan-fry; Oven-broi1; Gri11; Barbecue; Carcinogenic; Food frequency questionnaire; Cancer AbbI'eviαtion8: ΒαΡ, benzo[α]pyrene; FFQ, Food Frequency Questionnaire; HCA, heterocyc1ic amine(s); ΡΑΗ, p01ycyc1ic aromatic hydrocaΓbοn(s); HHHQ, Hca!th Habits and ΗίstΟΓΥ QιιcstίοnnaίΓC; ng, nanοgΓanι; NHANES ΙΙ, Sccond Nationa! Hca!th and NιιtΓίΙίon Examination Survey; TLC, thin !ayer chromatography; THEES, Tota! Ηηmαη Exposure to Environmenta! Substances. The opinions ΟΓ assertions contained herein are the private ones ο[ the author and are ηοΙ Ιο be constrned as officia! ΟΓ reflecting the views ο[ the United States Department of Defense ΟΓ the Uniforιned Services University of the Health Sciences. * COΓrcsponding aιιthΟΓ. Tcl.: + 1301-594-7296; fax: + 1301-496-1854. E-ιnαil α(/drc8s: kazeroun@exchange.nih.gov (Ν. Kazerouni). \ CLIncnt addΓCSS: DCΡaΓtmcnt ofHospita! and Hca!th CaΓC ΑdnιίnίstΓatίοn, Chnng-Tai Institιιtc ofHca!th Scicnccs and Tcchno!ogy, 11, Po-tzc Lane, Τα1ωn, Taichung, 40605, Taiwan, ROC. 2 Cnrrent address: Department ο[ Chemistry, University ο[ New Hampshire, Dnrham, ΝΗ 03824, USA. 0278-6915/01/$ scc front mattcJ' Pnblishcd by EIscvicJ' Scicncc Ltd. ΡΙΙ: S0278-6915(00)00158-7

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Analysis of 200 food items for benzo[a]pyrene andestimation of its intake ίη an epidemiologic study

Dietary plants and herbal preparations have been traditionally used as medicine in developing countries and obtained a resurgence of use in the United States and Europe. Research carried out in last few decades has validated several such claims of use of traditional medicine plants. Popularity of pumpkin in various systems of traditional medicine for several ailments (antidiabetic, antihypertensive, antitumor, immunomodulation, antibacterial, antihypercholesterolemia, intestinal antiparasitia, antiinflammation, antalgic) focused the investigators' attention on this plant. Considerable evidence from several epidemiological studies concerning bioactivities leads have stimulated a number of animal model, cell culture studies and clinical trials designed to test this pharmacological actions. In addition, it was found that technologies such as germination and fermentation could reduce antinutritional materials and affect the pharmacological activities of pumpkin. This review will focus on the main medicinal properties and technologies of pumpkin, and point out areas for future research to further elucidate mechanisms whereby this compound may reduce disease risk.

A review on pharmacological activities and utilization technologies of pumpkin.

Eight popularly consumed green leafy vegetables in Nigeria namely: Structium sparejanophora, Amarantus cruentus, Telfairia occidentalis, Baselia alba, Solanum macrocarpon, Corchorus olitorus, Vernonia amygdalina, and Ocimum gratissimum were blanched in hot water for 5 mins. The antioxidant properties of the fresh and blanched green leafy vegetables were subsequently determined. The total phenol, ascorbic acid and the antioxidant potentials as typified by reducing property and free radical scavenging activity was also determined. The results of the study revealed that blanching cause a significant ( P Amarantus cruentus and Vernonia amygdalina where there was no change. Conversely, there was a significant ( P Structium sparejanophora, where there was no change in the reducing property (0.6 absorbance) and free radical scavenging ability (59.8%) of the blanched vegetable. In view of this it could be concluded that blanching of vegetables though makes green leafy vegetables more palatable and less toxic, however it reduces their antioxidant properties drastically.

Effect of blanching on the antioxidant properties of some tropical green leafy vegetables

Thirty wild fruits, nuts, herbs, spices and leafy vegetables were characterized and their chemical composition determined. Some of them were not only used for food, but for medicine in minor aliments by the natives. Results of the proximate analysis showed that on dry weight basis, the crude protein content ranged from 4.6 to 22.1 percent for spices and herbs, 3.2 to 43.1 percent for fruits and nuts, and 15.9 to 35.7 percent for leafy vegetables. The fat (ether extract) ranged from 7.5 to 36.0 percent for spices and herbs, 1.8 to 72.6 percent for fruits and nuts and 10.6 to 22.6 percent for leafy vegetables. Total carbohydrate content ranged from 34.6 to 71.9 percent for spices and herbs, 11.3 to 76.1 percent for fruits and nuts, and 24.6 to 51.4 percent for leafy vegetables. The wild fruits, nuts and leafy vegetables are high in ascorbic acid (Vitamin C.) Ascorbic acid content ranged from 18 mg/100 g dry sample to 113 mg/100 g sample for fruits and nuts, and 23 mg/100 g to 232 mg/100 g sample for leafy vegetables. The levels for peroxide value and free fatty acids (as percent oleic acid) of the spices are generally low indicating good storage stability of these plant materials. The flavour imparting essential oils (as percent oleoresin) content of the spices/herbs were fairly high and ranged from 0.1 to 5.2 percent.

Chemical composition of indigenous wild herbs, spices, fruits, nuts and leafy vegetables used as food

Gari was processed from six different cassava cultivars TMS 3575, TMS 3044, hormone treated variety (HTV), TMS 30555, TMS 40944 and TMS 30572. Chemical analyses of the gari samples showed pH values of: 4.0, 4.0, 3.9, 3.6, 3.4, 3.6 and total titratable acidity of 0.99, 0.99, 0.98, 0.85, 0.96, 0.85 (% lactic acid) for TMS 3575, 3044, HTV, 30555, 30572, and 40944 respectively. Physical characteristics of the samples showed the swelling index of 264.5%, 223.5%, 364.0%, 321.3%, 241.3% and 232.7%, water absorption capacity of 1.0 ml/g, 0.8, 1.5, 1.9, 1.7, 1.9 ml g(-l) sample, relative bulk density of 0.29, 0.30, 0.15, 0.17, 0.15 (g/cm3) and gari yield of 34%, 21%, 33%, 24%, and 23%, for cultivars, TMS 3575 (2), 3044, HTV, 30555, 30572, 40944 respectively. Sensory evaluation showed a significant difference (p < 0.05) in quality and overall acceptability among the samples while Tukey test showed a difference (p<0.05) between HTV and between 3575 and 3044. The cassava pulp from the cultivars and their corresponding gari had HCN content (mg/100 g) ranging from 7.9 to 9.3 for pulp and 1.1 to 1.5 for gari, respectively. The 72 hours fermentation period reduced the HCN in all cultivars by 85%, which is considered to be a safe level for human consumption.

Physicochemical properties and garification (gari yield) of selected cassava cultivars in Rivers State, Nigeria

Ascorbic acid contents of some common local fruits and vegetables was determined. The ascorbic acid contents of the fruits ranged from 21.8 to 98.0 mg per 100 g sample while that of vegetables ranged from 21.3 to 98.8 mg per 100 g sample. The traditional processing of some of the fruits resulted in losses of ascorbic acid of between 43 and 58%. The traditional processing of the vegetables also resulted in losses of ascorbic acid of between 32 to 68%. On environmental exposure (storage) in the shade (27°C) for four hours the losses ranged from 22 to 34%. The peels of mango and African apple, which are normally discarded by the natives, contained higher contents of ascorbic acid than the edible portion.

Ascorbic acid content of some Nigerian local fruits and vegetables

Fermentation of bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) has not been fully studied. In this project an attempt was made to ferment the beans to a dawadawa-type product using whole cotyledons in four days. Isolates from fermenting cotyledons showed Bacillus subtilis and B licheniformis as the major fermenting microorganisms. Fermentation increased the pH of the substrate from 7-0 to 8-0 after an initial fall in the first 24 h. Fermentation increased moisture, protein and fat contents of cotyledons. Total available carbohydrate reduced in 48 h to less than 50% of value at the start of fermentation but then increased to 92% on the fourth day. The increase has been attributed to secretion of slime by fermenting microorganism. Fermentation also reduced the trypsin inhibitor activity of cotyledons.

Studies on the solid substrate fermentation of bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L) Verde)

Summary

Replacing wheatflour (WHF) with defatted fluted pumpkin (Telfairia occidentalis Hook) seed flour (FPF) at levels of 0–25% was investigated for its effect on chemical, physical, sensory and nutritional properties of cookies (biscuits). Protein quality was evaluated by using weanling albino rats fed a diet of cookies, which were formulated to supply 10% protein, with a casein diet as a control. Up to 15% substitution of WHF with FPF produced acceptable cookies with spread ratio, hardness, colour and flavour similar to the control (100% WHF) cookies. Use of higher levels (20–25%), however, resulted in reduction in these quality attributes. When WHF was replaced with 15% FPF, there was an increase of 84.6% in crude protein, 62.9% in calcium, 131.0% in potassium and 61.6% in phosphorus contents of composite cookies. There were no significant (P > 0.05) differences between the values obtained for protein efficiency ratio, net protein ratio and true digestibility of cookie diets containing 15–20% FPF, and casein when fed to rats.

S. C. Achinewhu

Papers

Chemical composition of indigenous wild herbs, spices, fruits, nuts and leafy vegetables used as food

Physicochemical properties and garification (gari yield) of selected cassava cultivars in Rivers State, Nigeria

Ascorbic acid content of some Nigerian local fruits and vegetables

Studies on the solid substrate fermentation of bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L) Verde)

The quality and sensory attributes of cookies supplemented with fluted pumpkin (Telfairia occidentalis Hook) seed flour