Stelios Katsanevakis*, Inger Wallentinus, Argyro Zenetos, Erkki Leppakoski, Melih Ertan Cinar, Bayram Ozturk, Michal Grabowski, Daniel Golani and Ana Cristina Cardoso European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC), Institute for Environment and Sustainability (IES), Ispra, Italy Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Sweden Institute of Marine Biological Resources and Inland Waters, Hellenic Centre for Marine Research, Ag. Kosmas, Greece Department of Biosciences, Environmental and Marine Biology, Abo Akademi University, Turku, Finland Ege University, Faculty of Fisheries, Department of Hydrobiology, Bornova, Izmir, Turkey Faculty of Fisheries, Marine Biology Laboratory, University of Istanbul, Istanbul, Turkey Department of Invertebrate Zoology & Hydrobiology, University of Lodz, Poland Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior and the National Natural History Collections, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel

/pdf/impacts-of-invasive-alien-marine-species-on-ecosystem-2h02ykurnj.pdf

Impacts of invasive alien marine species on ecosystem services and biodiversity: a pan-European review.

The first alphavirus to be isolated from fish was recorded in 1995 with the isolation of salmon pancreas disease virus from Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., in Ireland. Subsequently, the closely related sleeping disease virus was isolated from rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum), in France. More recently Norwegian salmonid alphavirus (SAV) has been isolated from marine phase production of Atlantic salmon and rainbow trout in Norway. These three viruses are closely related and are now considered to represent three subtypes of SAV, a new member of the genus Alphavirus within the family Togaviridae. SAVs are recognized as serious pathogens of farmed Atlantic salmon and rainbow trout in Europe. This paper aims to draw together both historical and current knowledge of the diseases caused by SAVs, the viruses, their diagnosis and control, and to discuss the differential diagnosis of similar pathologies seen in cardiomyopathy syndrome and heart and skeletal muscle inflammation of Atlantic salmon.

Alphavirus infections in salmonids – a review

Infectious and parasitic diseases generate large economic losses in salmon farming. A feasible and sustainable alternative to prevent disease outbreaks may be represented by genetic improvement for disease resistance. To include disease resistance into the breeding goal, prior knowledge of the levels of genetic variation for these traits is required. Furthermore, the information from the genetic architecture and molecular factors involved in resistance against diseases may be used to accelerate the genetic progress for these traits. In this regard, marker assisted selection and genomic selection are approaches which incorporate molecular information to increase the accuracy when predicting the genetic merit of selection candidates. In this article we review and discuss key aspects related to disease resistance in salmonid species, from both a genetic and genomic perspective, with emphasis in the applicability of disease resistance traits into breeding programs in salmonids.

/pdf/genetics-and-genomics-of-disease-resistance-in-salmonid-4z8s9clasj.pdf

Genetics and genomics of disease resistance in salmonid species.

Gillnets and traps often are considered to have fewer holistic environmental impacts than active fishing gears. However, in addition to the targeted catches, gillnets and traps still cause unwanted mortalities due to (i) discarding, (ii) ghost fishing of derelict gear, (iii) depredation, (iv) escaping or dropping out of gear, (v) habitat damage, and potentially (vi) avoiding gear and predation and (vii) infection of injuries sustained from most of the above. Population-level concerns associated with such ‘unaccounted fishing mortalities’ from gillnets and traps have been sufficient to warrant numerous attempts at mitigation. In this article, we reviewed relevant research efforts, locating 130 studies in the primary literature that concomitantly quantified mortalities and their resolution through technical modifications, with the division of effort indicating ongoing concerns. Most studies (85) have focused on discard mortality, followed by ghost-fishing (24), depredation (10) and escape (8) mortalities. The remaining components have been poorly studied (3). All problematic mortality components are affected by key biological (e.g. species), technical (e.g. fishing mechanisms) and/or environmental (e.g. temperature) factors. We propose that these key factors should be considered as part of a strategy to reduce impacts of these gears by first assessing modifications within and then beyond conventional configurations, followed by changes to operational and handling practices. Justification for this three-tiered approach is based not only on the potential for cumulative reduction benefits, but also on the likely ease of adoption, legislation and compliance.

Mitigating unaccounted fishing mortality from gillnets and traps

Bacterial communities associated with four ctenophore genera from the German Bight (North Sea).

Infectious gill diseases of marine salmonid fish present a significant challenge in salmon-farming regions. Infectious syndromes or disease conditions affecting marine-farmed salmonids include amoebic gill disease (AGD), proliferative gill inflammation (PGI) and tenacibaculosis. Pathogens involved include parasites, such as Neoparamoeba perurans, bacteria, such as Piscichlamydia salmonis and Tenacibaculum maritimum, and viruses, such as the Atlantic salmon paramyxovirus (ASPV). The present level of understanding of these is reviewed with regard to risk factors, potential impacting factors, methods of best practice to mitigate infectious gill disease, as well as knowledge gaps and avenues for future research.

A review of infectious gill disease in marine salmonid fish

Gill disorders present a significant challenge in salmon (Salmo salar and Oncorhynchus sp.) farming regions throughout the world. This review of gill disorders and diseases of marine fish is focused on the non-infectious causes of gill disease in marine stage salmonids and these are grouped into harmful algae, such as Karenia mikimotoi, harmful zooplankton, such as Pelagia noctiluca, other environmental challenges, such as pollutants, as well as nutritional and genetic or congenital causes. The present level of understanding of these gill disorders is reviewed with regard to risk factors, potential impacting factors, methods of best practice to mitigate non-infectious gill disease and disorders, as well as knowledge gaps and avenues for future research.

Non-infectious gill disorders of marine salmonid fish

Epitheliocystis, a disease characterised by cytoplasmic bacterial inclusions (cysts) in the gill and less commonly skin epithelial cells, has been reported in many marine and freshwater fish species and may be associated with mortality. Previously, molecular and ultrastructural analyses have exclusively associated members of the Chlamydiae with such inclusions. Here we investigated a population of farmed Atlantic salmon from the west coast of Norway displaying gill epitheliocystis. Although ‘Candidatus Piscichlamydia salmonis’, previously reported to be present in such cysts, was detected by PCR in most of the gill samples analysed, this bacterium was found to be a rare member of the gill microbiota, and not associated with the observed cysts as demonstrated by fluorescence in situ hybridization assays. The application of a broad range 16 S rRNA targeted PCR assay instead identified a novel betaproteobacterium as an abundant member of the gill microbiota. Fluorescence in situ hybridization demonstrated that this bacterium, tentatively classified as ‘Candidatus Branchiomonas cysticola’, was the cyst-forming agent in these samples. While histology and ultrastructure of ‘Ca. B. cysticola’ cysts revealed forms similar to the reticulate and intermediate bodies described in earlier reports from salmon in seawater, no elementary bodies typical of the chlamydial developmental cycle were observed. In conclusion, this study identified a novel agent of epitheliocystis in sea-farmed Atlantic salmon and demonstrated that these cysts can be caused by bacteria phylogenetically distinct from the Chlamydiae.

A Novel Betaproteobacterial Agent of Gill Epitheliocystis in Seawater Farmed Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar)

/pdf/a-novel-betaproteobacterial-agent-of-gill-epitheliocystis-in-1uu6a9dou2.pdf

A novel betaproteobacterial agent of gill epitheliocystis in seawater farmed Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar).

The prevalence and geographical distribution of the recently described endosymbiont 'Candidatus Branchiomonas cysticola' in Atlantic salmon Salmo salar gill epithelial cell cysts was investigated in seawater-farmed fish suffering proliferative gill inflammation (PGI). To this end, we developed a specific and sensitive real-time PCR assay for detection of the bacterium. 'Ca. B. cysticola' was found to be highly prevalent in Atlantic salmon gills sampled over 7 yr and from 17 geographically distant seawater locations in Norway and Ireland. 'Ca. B. cysticola' was found in significantly greater quantities in fish with large numbers of epitheliocysts, and fluorescence in situ hybridization confirmed its localisation within cysts. 'Ca. Piscichlamydia salmonis', a bacterium previously linked to epitheliocysts, was identified at relatively low levels of infection, apparently independent of epitheliocyst prevalence. These results suggest that 'Ca. B. cysticola' is the main cyst-forming bacterium in seawater-farmed Atlantic salmon in the studied countries. Our results also suggest a relationship between load of 'Ca. B. cysticola' and extent of pathological changes. Taken together with a previously described association between epitheliocyst load and severity of PGI in Norwegian salmon, the results could indicate a role for 'Ca. B. cysticola' in gill diseases such as PGI.

/pdf/candidatus-branchiomonas-cysticola-is-a-common-agent-of-1joakk91j6.pdf

S. O. Mitchell

Papers

A review of infectious gill disease in marine salmonid fish

Non-infectious gill disorders of marine salmonid fish

A Novel Betaproteobacterial Agent of Gill Epitheliocystis in Seawater Farmed Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar)

A novel betaproteobacterial agent of gill epitheliocystis in seawater farmed Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar).

'Candidatus Branchiomonas Cysticola' Is a Common Agent of Epitheliocysts in Seawater-Farmed Atlantic Salmon Salmo Salar in Norway and Ireland